Communality in microbial stress response and differential metabolic interactions revealed by time-series analysis of sponge symbionts.

The diversity and function of sponge-associated symbionts is now increasingly understood; however, we lack an understanding of how they dynamically behave to ensure holobiont stability in the face of environmental variation. Here, we performed a metatransciptomic analysis on three microbial symbionts of the sponge Cymbastela concentrica in situ over 14 months and through differential gene expression and correlation analysis to environmental variables uncovered differences that speak to their metabolic activities and level of symbiotic and environmental interactions. The nitrite-oxidizing Ca. Porinitrospira cymbastela maintained a seemingly stable metabolism, with the few differentially expressed genes related only to stress responses. The heterotrophic Ca. Porivivens multivorans displayed differential use of holobiont-derived compounds and respiration modes, while the ammonium-oxidizing archaeon Ca. Nitrosopumilus cymbastelus differentially expressed genes related to phosphate metabolism and symbiosis effectors. One striking similarity between the symbionts was their similar variation in expression of stress-related genes. Our time-series study showed that the microbial community of C. concentrica undertakes dynamic gene expression adjustments in response to the surroundings, tuned to deal with general stress and metabolic interactions between holobiont members. The success of these dynamic adjustments likely underpins the stability of the sponge holobiont and may provide resilience against environmental change.

Genotype to phenotype: Diet-by-mitochondrial DNA haplotype interactions drive metabolic flexibility and organismal fitness.

Diet may be modified seasonally or by biogeographic, demographic or cultural shifts. It can differentially influence mitochondrial bioenergetics, retrograde signalling to the nuclear genome, and anterograde signalling to mitochondria. All these interactions have the potential to alter the frequencies of mtDNA haplotypes (mitotypes) in nature and may impact human health. In a model laboratory system, we fed four diets varying in Protein: Carbohydrate (P:C) ratio (1:2, 1:4, 1:8 and 1:16 P:C) to four homoplasmic Drosophila melanogaster mitotypes (nuclear genome standardised) and assayed their frequency in population cages. When fed a high protein 1:2 P:C diet, the frequency of flies harbouring Alstonville mtDNA increased. In contrast, when fed the high carbohydrate 1:16 P:C food the incidence of flies harbouring Dahomey mtDNA increased. This result, driven by differences in larval development, was generalisable to the replacement of the laboratory diet with fruits having high and low P:C ratios, perturbation of the nuclear genome and changes to the microbiome. Structural modelling and cellular assays suggested a V161L mutation in the ND4 subunit of complex I of Dahomey mtDNA was mildly deleterious, reduced mitochondrial functions, increased oxidative stress and resulted in an increase in larval development time on the 1:2 P:C diet. The 1:16 P:C diet triggered a cascade of changes in both mitotypes. In Dahomey larvae, increased feeding fuelled increased ß-oxidation and the partial bypass of the complex I mutation. Conversely, Alstonville larvae upregulated genes involved with oxidative phosphorylation, increased glycogen metabolism and they were more physically active. We hypothesise that the increased physical activity diverted energy from growth and cell division and thereby slowed development. These data further question the use of mtDNA as an assumed neutral marker in evolutionary and population genetic studies. Moreover, if humans respond similarly, we posit that individuals with specific mtDNA variations may differentially metabolise carbohydrates, which has implications for a variety of diseases including cardiovascular disease, obesity, and perhaps Parkinson's Disease.

Specific Bacteria and Metabolites Associated With Response to Fecal Microbiota Transplantation in Patients With Ulcerative Colitis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) can induce remission in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC). In a randomized controlled trial of FMT in patients with active UC, we aimed to identify bacterial taxonomic and functional factors associated with response to therapy. METHODS: We performed a double-blind trial of 81 patients with active UC randomly assigned to groups that received an initial colonoscopic infusion and then intensive multidonor FMT or placebo enemas, 5 d/wk for 8 weeks. Patients in the FMT group received blended homogenized stool from 3-7 unrelated donors. Patients in the placebo group were eligible to receive open-label FMT after the double-blind study period. We collected 314 fecal samples from the patients at screening, every 4 weeks during treatment, and 8 weeks after the blinded or open-label FMT therapy. We also collected 160 large-bowel biopsy samples from the patients at study entry, at completion of 8 weeks of blinded therapy, and at the end of open-label FMT, if applicable. We analyzed 105 fecal samples from the 14 individual donors (n = 55), who in turn contributed to 21 multidonor batches (n = 50). Bacteria in colonic and fecal samples were analyzed by both 16S ribosomal RNA gene and transcript amplicon sequencing; 285 fecal samples were analyzed by shotgun metagenomics, and 60 fecal samples were analyzed for metabolome features. RESULTS: FMT increased microbial diversity and altered composition, based on analyses of colon and fecal samples collected before vs after FMT. Diversity was greater in fecal and colon samples collected before and after FMT treatment from patients who achieved remission compared with patients who did not. Patients in remission after FMT had enrichment of Eubacterium hallii and Roseburia inulivorans compared with patients who did not achieve remission after FMT and had increased levels of short-chain fatty acid biosynthesis and secondary bile acids. Patients who did not achieve remission had enrichment of Fusobacterium gonidiaformans, Sutterella wadsworthensis, and Escherichia species and increased levels of heme and lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis. Bacteroides in donor stool were associated with remission in patients receiving FMT, and Streptococcus species in donor stool was associated with no response to FMT. CONCLUSIONS: In an analysis of fecal and colonic mucosa samples from patients receiving FMT for active UC and stool samples from donors, we associated specific bacteria and metabolic pathways with induction of remission. These findings may be of value in the design of microbe-based therapies for UC. ClinicalTrials.gov, Number NCT01896635.

Delineation of ecologically distinct units of marine Bacteroidetes in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea.

Bacteroidetes is one of the dominant phyla of ocean bacterioplankton, yet its diversity and population structure is poorly understood. To advance in the delineation of ecologically meaningful units within this group, we constructed near full-length 16S rRNA gene clone libraries from contrasting marine environments in the NW Mediterranean. Based on phylogeny and the associated ecological variables (depth and season), 24 different Bacteroidetes clades were delineated. By considering their relative abundance (from iTag amplicon sequencing studies), we described the distribution patterns of each of these clades, delimiting them as Ecologically Significant Taxonomic Units (ESTUs). Spatially, there was almost no overlap among ESTUs at different depths. In deep waters there was predominance of Owenweeksia, Leeuwenhoekiella, Muricauda-related genera, and some depth-associated ESTUs within the NS5 and NS2b marine clades. Seasonally, multi-annual dynamics of recurring ESTUs were present with dominance of some ESTUs within the NS4, NS5 and NS2b marine clades along most of the year, but with variable relative frequencies between months. A drastic change towards the predominance of Formosa-related ESTUs and one ESTU from the NS5 marine clade was typically present after the spring bloom. Even though there are no isolates available for these ESTUs to determine their physiology, correlation analyses identified the environmental preference of some of them. Overall, our results suggest that there is a high degree of niche specialisation within these closely related clades. This work constitutes a step forward in disentangling the ecology of marine Bacteroidetes, which are essential players in organic matter processing in the oceans.

Continental-scale variation in seaweed host-associated bacterial communities is a function of host condition, not geography.

Interactions between hosts and associated microbial communities can fundamentally shape the development and ecology of 'holobionts', from humans to marine habitat-forming organisms such as seaweeds. In marine systems, planktonic microbial community structure is mainly driven by geography and related environmental factors, but the large-scale drivers of host-associated microbial communities are largely unknown. Using 16S-rRNA gene sequencing, we characterized 260 seaweed-associated bacterial and archaeal communities on the kelp Ecklonia radiata from three biogeographical provinces spanning 10° of latitude and 35° of longitude across the Australian continent. These phylogenetically and taxonomically diverse communities were more strongly and consistently associated with host condition than geographical location or environmental variables, and a 'core' microbial community characteristic of healthy kelps appears to be lost when hosts become stressed. Microbial communities on stressed individuals were more similar to each other among locations than those on healthy hosts. In contrast to biogeographical patterns of planktonic marine microbial communities, host traits emerge as critical determinants of associated microbial community structure of these holobionts, even at a continental scale.

Micro-fabricated polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) surfaces regulate the development of marine microbial biofilm communities.

This study explored an antifouling (AF) concept based on deployment of microfabricated polydimethyl siloxane (PDMS) surfaces with 1-10 µm periodicity corrugated topographies in temperate marine waters. The effect of the surfaces on the development of microbial biofilms over 28 days and during different seasons, including both summer and winter, was examined using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) as well as terminal restriction fragment (T-RF) analysis for phylogenetic fingerprinting. The microscale topography significantly impacted biofilm development by altering the attachment pattern and reducing microcolony formation on the 1, 2 and 4 µm PDMS surfaces. Also, field deployments over 28 days showed a significant reduction in biovolume on the 4 and 10 µm PDMS surfaces despite altered environmental conditions. The microfabricated PDMS surfaces further significantly impacted on the community composition of the biofilms, as revealed by changes in T-RF profiles, at different stages of development. Moreover, altered biofilm resistance was demonstrated by exposing pre-established biofilms on 10 µm micro-fabricated surfaces to enhanced flagellate predation by a heterotrophic protist, Rhynchomonas nasuta. Pronounced changes in the overall marine microbial biofilm development as well as community composition warrant exploring substratum modification for marine AF applications.

rCRUX: A Rapid and Versatile Tool for Generating Metabarcoding Reference libraries in R.

The sequencing revolution requires accurate taxonomic classification of DNA sequences. Key to making accurate taxonomic assignments are curated, comprehensive reference barcode databases. However, the generation and curation of such databases has remained challenging given the large and continuously growing volumes of both DNA sequence data and novel reference barcode targets. Monitoring and research applications require a greater diversity of specialized gene regions and targeted taxa then are currently curated by professional staff. Thus there is a growing need for an easy to implement computational tool that can generate comprehensive metabarcoding reference libraries for any bespoke locus. We address this need by reimagining CRUX from the Anacapa Toolkit and present the rCRUX package in R which, like it's predecessor, relies on sequence homology and PCR primer compatibility instead of keyword-searches to avoid limitations of user-defined metadata. The typical workflow involves searching for plausible seed amplicons (get_seeds_local() or get_seeds_remote()) by simulating in silico PCR to acquire a set of sequences analogous to PCR products containing a user-defined set of primer sequences. Next, these seeds are used to iteratively blast search seed sequences against a local copy of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) formatted nt database using a taxonomic-rank based stratified random sampling approach ( blast_seeds() ). This results in a comprehensive set of sequence matches. This database is dereplicated and cleaned (derep_and_clean_db()) by identifying identical reference sequences and collapsing the taxonomic path to the lowest taxonomic agreement across all matching reads. This results in a curated, comprehensive database of primer-specific reference barcode sequences from NCBI. Databases can then be compared (compare_db()) to determine read and taxonomic overlap. We demonstrate that rCRUX provides more comprehensive reference databases for the MiFish Universal Teleost 12S, Taberlet trnl, fungal ITS, and Leray CO1 loci than CRABS, MetaCurator, RESCRIPt, and ecoPCR reference databases. We then further demonstrate the utility of rCRUX by generating 24 reference databases for 20 metabarcoding loci, many of which lack dedicated reference database curation efforts. The rCRUX package provides a simple to use tool for the generation of curated, comprehensive reference databases for user-defined loci, facilitating accurate and effective taxonomic classification of metabarcoding and DNA sequence efforts broadly.

rCRUX: A Rapid and Versatile Tool for Generating Metabarcoding Reference libraries in R.

Key to making accurate taxonomic assignments are curated, comprehensive reference barcode databases. However, the generation and curation of such databases has remained challenging given the large and continuously growing volumes of DNA sequence data and novel reference barcode targets. Monitoring and research applications require a greater diversity of specialized gene regions and targeted taxa to meet taxonomic classification goals then are currently curated by professional staff. Thus, there is a growing need for an easy to implement tool that can generate comprehensive metabarcoding reference libraries for any bespoke locus. We address this need by reimagining CRUX from the Anacapa Toolkit and present the rCRUX package in R. The typical workflow involves searching for plausible seed amplicons (get_seeds_local() or get_seeds_remote()) by simulating in silico PCR to acquire seed sequences containing a user-defined primer set. Next these seeds are used to iteratively blast search seed sequences against a local NCBI formatted database using a taxonomic rank based stratified random sampling approach (blast_seeds()) that results in a comprehensive set of sequence matches. This database is dereplicated and cleaned (derep_and_clean_db()) by identifying identical reference sequences and collapsing the taxonomic path to the lowest taxonomic agreement across all matching reads. This results in a curated, comprehensive database of primer specific reference barcode sequences from NCBI. We demonstrate that rCRUX provides more comprehensive reference databases for the MiFish Universal Teleost 12S, Taberlet trnl, and fungal ITS locus than CRABS, METACURATOR, RESCRIPt, and ECOPCR reference databases. We then further demonstrate the utility of rCRUX by generating 16 reference databases for metabarcoding loci that lack dedicated reference database curation efforts. The rCRUX package provides a simple to use tool for the generation of curated, comprehensive reference databases for user-defined loci, facilitating accurate and effective taxonomic classification of metabarcoding and DNA sequence efforts broadly.

Stress response of the marine sponge Scopalina sp.. Can microbial community composition predict sponge disease?

Disease has become an increasingly recognised problem in the marine environment, but our understanding of the factors that drive disease or our ability to predict its occurrence is limited. Marine sponges are known for their close associations with microorganisms, which are generally accepted to underpin sponge health and function. The aim of this study is to explore whether the microbial community composition of sponges can act as a predictor of disease occurrence under stressful environmental conditions. The development of a naturally occurring disease in the temperate sponge species Scopalina sp. was reproducibly recreated in a flow-through aquarium environment using increasing temperature stress. Throughout the experiments, four morphological health states were observed and described. Fingerprinting based on terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism of the bacterial community uncovered a statistically significant signature in healthy sponges prior to stress or apparent symptoms that correlated with the time it took for the disease to occur. This shows that the bacterial community composition of individual sponges can act as predictors of necrotic disease development. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time a microbial signature of this nature has been reported in marine sponges and this finding can contribute to unravelling cause-effect pathways for stress-related dysbiosis and disease.

Multi-omics of the esophageal microenvironment identifies signatures associated with progression of Barrett's esophagus.

BACKGROUND: The enrichment of Gram-negative bacteria of oral origin in the esophageal microbiome has been associated with the development of metaplasia. However, to date, no study has comprehensively assessed the relationships between the esophageal microbiome and the host. METHODS: Here, we examine the esophageal microenvironment in gastro-esophageal reflux disease and metaplasia using multi-omics strategies targeting the microbiome and host transcriptome, followed by targeted culture, comparative genomics, and host-microbial interaction studies of bacterial signatures of interest. RESULTS: Profiling of the host transcriptome from esophageal mucosal biopsies revealed profound changes during metaplasia. Importantly, five biomarkers showed consistent longitudinal changes with disease progression from reflux disease to metaplasia. We showed for the first time that the esophageal microbiome is distinct from the salivary microbiome and the enrichment of Campylobacter species as a consistent signature in disease across two independent cohorts. Shape fitting and matrix correlation identified associations between the microbiome and host transcriptome profiles, with a novel co-exclusion relationship found between Campylobacter and napsin B aspartic peptidase. Targeted culture of Campylobacter species from the same cohort revealed a subset of isolates to have a higher capacity to survive within primary human macrophages. Comparative genomic analyses showed these isolates could be differentiated by specific genomic features, one of which was validated to be associated with intracellular fitness. Screening for these Campylobacter strain-specific signatures in shotgun metagenomics data from another cohort showed an increase in prevalence with disease progression. Comparative transcriptomic analyses of primary esophageal epithelial cells exposed to the Campylobacter isolates revealed expression changes within those infected with strains with high intracellular fitness that could explain the increased likelihood of disease progression. CONCLUSIONS: We provide a comprehensive assessment of the esophageal microenvironment, identifying bacterial strain-specific signatures with high relevance to progression of metaplasia.

Age, gut location and diet impact the gut microbiome of a tropical herbivorous surgeonfish.

Herbivorous fishes play important ecological roles in coral reefs by consuming algae that can otherwise outcompete corals, but we know little about the gut microbiota that facilitates this process. This study focussed on the gut microbiota of an ecologically important coral reef fish, the convict surgeonfish Acanthurus triostegus. We sought to understand how the microbiome of this species varies along its gastrointestinal tract and how it varies between juvenile and adult fish. Further, we examined if the bacteria associated with the diet consumed by juveniles contribute to the gut microbiota. 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing showed that bacterial communities associated with the midgut and hindgut regions were distinct between adults and juveniles; however, no significant differences were seen for gut wall samples. The microbiota associated with the epilithic algal food source was similar to that of the juvenile midgut and gut wall but differed from the microbiome of the hindgut. A core bacterial community including members of taxa Epulopiscium and Brevinemataceae was observed across all gastrointestinal and diet samples, suggesting that these bacterial symbionts can be acquired by juvenile convict surgeonfish horizontally via their diet and then are retained into adulthood.

Biochar-based fertilizer: Supercharging root membrane potential and biomass yield of rice.

Biochar-based compound fertilizers (BCF) and amendments have proven to enhance crop yields and modify soil properties (pH, nutrients, organic matter, structure etc.) and are now in commercial production in China. While there is a good understanding of the changes in soil properties following biochar addition, the interactions within the rhizosphere remain largely unstudied, with benefits to yield observed beyond the changes in soil properties alone. We investigated the rhizosphere interactions following the addition of an activated wheat straw BCF at an application rates of 0.25% (g·g-1 soil), which could potentially explain the increase of plant biomass (by 67%), herbage N (by 40%) and P (by 46%) uptake in the rice plants grown in the BCF-treated soil, compared to the rice plants grown in the soil with conventional fertilizer alone. Examination of the roots revealed that micron and submicron-sized biochar were embedded in the plaque layer. BCF increased soil Eh by 85 mV and increased the potential difference between the rhizosphere soil and the root membrane by 65 mV. This increased potential difference lowered the free energy required for root nutrient accumulation, potentially explaining greater plant nutrient content and biomass. We also demonstrate an increased abundance of plant-growth promoting bacteria and fungi in the rhizosphere. We suggest that the redox properties of the biochar cause major changes in electron status of rhizosphere soils that drive the observed agronomic benefits.

Interactions within the microbiome alter microbial interactions with host chemical defences and affect disease in a marine holobiont.

Our understanding of diseases has been transformed by the realisation that people are holobionts, comprised of a host and its associated microbiome(s). Disease can also have devastating effects on populations of marine organisms, including dominant habitat formers such as seaweed holobionts. However, we know very little about how interactions between microorganisms within microbiomes - of humans or marine organisms - affect host health and there is no underpinning theoretical framework for exploring this. We applied ecological models of succession to bacterial communities to understand how interactions within a seaweed microbiome affect the host. We observed succession of surface microbiomes on the red seaweed Delisea pulchra in situ, following a disturbance, with communities 'recovering' to resemble undisturbed states after only 12 days. Further, if this recovery was perturbed, a bleaching disease previously described for this seaweed developed. Early successional strains of bacteria protected the host from colonisation by a pathogenic, later successional strain. Host chemical defences also prevented disease, such that within-microbiome interactions were most important when the host's chemical defences were inhibited. This is the first experimental evidence that interactions within microbiomes have important implications for host health and disease in a dominant marine habitat-forming organism.

Changes in the metabolic potential of the sponge microbiome under ocean acidification.

Anthropogenic CO2 emissions are causing ocean acidification, which can affect the physiology of marine organisms. Here we assess the possible effects of ocean acidification on the metabolic potential of sponge symbionts, inferred by metagenomic analyses of the microbiomes of two sponge species sampled at a shallow volcanic CO2 seep and a nearby control reef. When comparing microbial functions between the seep and control sites, the microbiome of the sponge Stylissa flabelliformis (which is more abundant at the control site) exhibits at the seep reduced potential for uptake of exogenous carbohydrates and amino acids, and for degradation of host-derived creatine, creatinine and taurine. The microbiome of Coelocarteria singaporensis (which is more abundant at the seep) exhibits reduced potential for carbohydrate import at the seep, but greater capacity for archaeal carbon fixation via the 3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate pathway, as well as archaeal and bacterial urea production and ammonia assimilation from arginine and creatine catabolism. Together these metabolic features might contribute to enhanced tolerance of the sponge symbionts, and possibly their host, to ocean acidification.

Gut Microbiota in Children With Cystic Fibrosis: A Taxonomic and Functional Dysbiosis.

Intestinal dysbiosis has been observed in children with cystic fibrosis (CF), yet the functional consequences are poorly understood. We investigated the functional capacity of intestinal microbiota and inflammation in children with CF. Stool samples were collected from 27 children with CF and 27 age and gender matched healthy controls (HC) (aged 0.8-18 years). Microbial communities were investigated by iTag sequencing of 16S rRNA genes and functional profiles predicted using Tax4Fun. Inflammation was measured by faecal calprotectin and M2-pyruvate kinase. Paediatric CF gastrointestinal microbiota demonstrated lower richness and diversity compared to HC. CF samples exhibited a marked taxonomic and inferred functional dysbiosis when compared to HC. In children with CF, we predicted an enrichment of genes involved in short-chain fatty acid (SCFA), antioxidant and nutrient metabolism (relevant for growth and nutrition) in CF. The notion of pro-inflammatory GI microbiota in children with CF is supported by positive correlations between intestinal inflammatory markers and both genera and functional pathways. We also observed an association between intestinal genera and both growth z-scores and FEV1%. These taxonomic and functional changes provide insights into gastrointestinal disease in children with CF and future gastrointestinal therapeutics for CF should explore the aforementioned pathways and microbial changes.

Detecting signatures of a sponge-associated lifestyle in bacterial genomes.

Sponges interact with diverse and rich communities of bacteria that are phylogenetically often distinct from their free-living counterparts. Recent genomics and metagenomic studies have indicated that bacterial sponge symbionts also have distinct functional features from free-living bacteria; however, it is unclear, if such genome-derived functional signatures are common and present in different symbiont taxa. We therefore compared here a large set of genomes from cultured (Pseudovibrio, Ruegeria and Aquimarina) and yet-uncultivated (Synechococcus) bacteria found in either sponge-associated or free-living sources. Our analysis revealed only very few genera-specific functions that could be correlated with a sponge-associated lifestyle. Using different sets of sponge-associated and free-living bacteria for each genus, we could however show that the functions identified as 'sponge-associated' are dependent on the reference comparison being made. Using simulation approaches, we show how this influences the robustness of identifying functional signatures and how evolutionary divergence and genomic adaptation can be distinguished. Our results highlight the future need for robust comparative analyses to define genomic signatures of symbiotic lifestyles, whether it is for symbionts of sponges or other host organisms.

Microbiome patterns across the gastrointestinal tract of the rabbitfish Siganus fuscescens.

Most of our knowledge regarding the biodiversity of gut microbes comes from terrestrial organisms or marine species of economic value, with less emphasis on ecologically important species. Here we investigate the bacterial composition associated with the gut of Siganus fuscescens, a rabbitfish that plays an important ecological role in coastal ecosystems by consuming seaweeds. Members of Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes and delta-Proteobacteria were among the dominant taxa across samples taken from the contents and the walls (sites) of the midgut and hindgut (location). Despite the high variability among individual fish, we observed statistically significant differences in beta-diversity between gut sites and gut locations. Some bacterial taxa low in abundance in the midgut content (e.g., Desulfovibrio) were found in greater abundances on the midgut wall and within the hindgut, suggesting that the gut may select for specific groups of environmental and/or food-associated microorganisms. In contrast, some distinct taxa present in the midgut content (e.g., Synechococcus) were noticeably reduced in the midgut wall and hindgut, and are thus likely to be representative of transient microbiota. This is the first assessment of the bacterial diversity associated with the gut of S. fuscescens and highlights the need to consider the variability across different gut locations and sites when analyzing fish gut microbiomes.

Microbial communities in marine sediments modify success of an invasive macrophyte.

Invasive plants have extensive impacts on ecosystem function and biodiversity globally. Our inability to manage invasive species stems in part from a lack of understanding of the processes that control their successful establishment and spread. To date, studies have largely considered how above-ground processes control native/invasive plant interactions. Emerging research from terrestrial and wetland ecosystems demonstrates that below-ground processes under microbial control can determine the outcome of interactions between native and invasive plants. Whether sediment microbes modify the success of invasive macrophytes in marine ecosystems is untested, despite marine sediment microbes controlling many ecological processes (e.g. nutrient cycling) comparable to those in terrestrial ecosystems. We first show that sediment bacterial communities differ between the native seagrass Zostera capricorni and the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia and that those differences relate to functional changes in sulfur cycling between the macrophytes. Second, by experimentally manipulating the microbial communities we show that intact microbial communities in Z. capricorni sediments provide biotic resistance by reducing C. taxifolia fragment growth 119% compared to when they are inactive, and intact microbial communities in C. taxifolia sediments have positive feedbacks by increasing fragment growth 200%. Thus, similar to terrestrial ecosystems, microorganisms appear to indirectly control the success of invasive macrophytes in marine ecosystems.

Temporal Stability and Composition of the Ocular Surface Microbiome.

To determine if there is a core ocular surface microbiome and whether there are microbial community changes over time, the conjunctiva of 45 healthy subjects were sampled at three time points over three months and processed using culture-dependent and -independent methods. Contaminant taxa were removed using a linear regression model using taxa abundances in negative controls as predictor of taxa abundances in subject samples. Both cultured cell counts and sequencing indicated low microbial biomass on the ocular surface. No cultured species was found in all subjects at all times or in all subjects at any one time. After removal of contaminant taxa identified in negative controls using a statistical model, the most commonly detected taxon was Corynebacterium (11.1%). No taxa were found in all subjects at all times or in all subjects in any one time, but there were 26 taxa present in at least one or more subjects at all times including Corynebacterium and Streptococcus. The ocular surface contains a low diversity of microorganisms. Using culture dependent and independent methods, the ocular surface does not appear to support a substantial core microbiome. However, consistently present taxa could be observed within individuals suggesting the possibility of individual-specific core microbiomes.

Metagenomic analysis of soil and freshwater from zoo agricultural area with organic fertilization.

Microbial communities drive biogeochemical cycles in agricultural areas by decomposing organic materials and converting essential nutrients. Organic amendments improve soil quality by increasing the load of essential nutrients and enhancing the productivity. Additionally, fresh water used for irrigation can affect soil quality of agricultural soils, mainly due to the presence of microbial contaminants and pathogens. In this study, we investigated how microbial communities in irrigation water might contribute to the microbial diversity and function of soil. Whole-metagenomic sequencing approaches were used to investigate the taxonomic and the functional profiles of microbial communities present in fresh water used for irrigation, and in soil from a vegetable crop, which received fertilization with organic compost made from animal carcasses. The taxonomic analysis revealed that the most abundant genera were Polynucleobacter (~8% relative abundance) and Bacillus (~10%) in fresh water and soil from the vegetable crop, respectively. Low abundance (0.38%) of cyanobacterial groups were identified. Based on functional gene prediction, denitrification appears to be an important process in the soil community analysed here. Conversely, genes for nitrogen fixation were abundant in freshwater, indicating that the N-fixation plays a crucial role in this particular ecosystem. Moreover, pathogenicity islands, antibiotic resistance and potential virulence related genes were identified in both samples, but no toxigenic genes were detected. This study provides a better understanding of the community structure of an area under strong agricultural activity with regular irrigation and fertilization with an organic compost made from animal carcasses. Additionally, the use of a metagenomic approach to investigate fresh water quality proved to be a relevant method to evaluate its use in an agricultural ecosystem.