Patterns of Gender Development Across Intersections of Age, Gender, and Ethnicity-Race.

Two components of gender identity are gender similarity, how one's self-concept relates to the major gender collectives (i.e., female, male), and felt pressure to conform to gender norms. The development of these components across ages and contexts has been understudied. The focus of this study was to examine variations in gender similarity and felt pressure across multiple intersecting contexts: developmental stage, gender, and ethnic-racial group. Six data sets were harmonized and means were compared across 2628 participants (51% girls, 49% boys) from four different developmental cohorts (childhood n = 678, early adolescence n = 1322, adolescence n = 415, and young adulthood n = 213) from diverse ethnic-racial backgrounds (45% White, 23% Latinx/Hispanic, 11% Black/African-American, 7% Asian-American, 5% American Indian, and 5% Multiracial). Results revealed nuanced patterns: Gender intensification was supported in early adolescence, primarily for boys. Young adult men reported lower levels of pressure and gender typicality than younger boys, but young adult women's levels were generally not different than younger girls. Surprisingly, young adult women's levels of own-gender similarity and pressure from parents were higher than adolescent girls. Expectations of gender differences in gender typicality and felt pressure were supported for all ages except young adults, with higher levels for boys. Finally, there were more similarities than differences across ethnic-racial groups, though when there were differences, minoritized participants reported heightened gender typicality and pressure (largely accounted for by higher scores for Black and Latinx participants and lower scores for White and Multiracial participants). These results add to what is understood about contextually dependent gender development.

Endorsement of Masculine-Typed Behaviors Decreases During Middle Adolescence: The Contextualizing Role of Peer Experiences for Adolescents Living in the United States.

While more research is emerging about the development of masculinity during adolescence, not much is known about how masculine-type behaviors develop over time in middle to late adolescence within the context of friendships and peer experiences. This study examined trajectories of masculine-typed behavior from ages 14 to 17. Multilevel modeling was used to account for cross-time and within-time variability in masculine-typed behavior and examined the role of positive and negative peer experiences in predicting this variability. This was done in a sample of 334 U.S. adolescents (51% boys; 50% White, 19% Black, 15% Latina/o/e). At the between-person level, boys and girls decreased in masculine-typed behavior over time. At the within-person level, negative peer experiences predicted fluctuations toward greater masculine-typed behavior, whereas friend support predicted fluctuations toward less masculine-typed behavior. Adolescence is a key period for navigating masculinity norms, and peer experiences are a key context for the development of masculine-typed behavior.

Quantifying gender norm resistance.

INTRODUCTION: Qualitative and mixed-methods researchers have described the experience of gender norm resistance in adolescence and identified potential types of resistance including indirect resistance (motivated by a preference for gender-atypicality) and direct resistance (motivated by dislike of gender norms and a desire to change them). Building on this work, we developed the Gender Norm Resistance measure to operationalize indirect and direct gender norm resistance. We explored how gender norm resistance aligns with and differs from other gender self-concepts (e.g., felt pressure to conform to gender norms) and peer relations (e.g., contact with peers) and tested for gender differences. METHODS: Participants included 484 early adolescents (girls = 234; Mage = 11.44 years, SD = 0.56). Analyses included factor analyses (EFA, CFA) and bivariate correlations to gather validity evidence, and ANOVAs to determine mean level differences. RESULTS: Evidence that validated using the proposed measure as intended was found including confirmation of the two types of gender norm resistance (indirect and direct). Mean differences were found across participant gender as well as across types of gender norm resistance. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the Gender Norm Resistance measure, the different ways adolescents experience indirect and direct gender norm resistance, and the limited role of felt pressure in gender norm resistance.

LPP3 mediates self-generation of chemotactic LPA gradients by melanoma cells.

Melanoma cells steer out of tumours using self-generated lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) gradients. The cells break down LPA, which is present at high levels around the tumours, creating a dynamic gradient that is low in the tumour and high outside. They then migrate up this gradient, creating a complex and evolving outward chemotactic stimulus. Here, we introduce a new assay for self-generated chemotaxis, and show that raising LPA levels causes a delay in migration rather than loss of chemotactic efficiency. Knockdown of the lipid phosphatase LPP3 - but not of its homologues LPP1 or LPP2 - diminishes the cell's ability to break down LPA. This is specific for chemotactically active LPAs, such as the 18:1 and 20:4 species. Inhibition of autotaxin-mediated LPA production does not diminish outward chemotaxis, but loss of LPP3-mediated LPA breakdown blocks it. Similarly, in both 2D and 3D invasion assays, knockdown of LPP3 diminishes the ability of melanoma cells to invade. Our results demonstrate that LPP3 is the key enzyme in the breakdown of LPA by melanoma cells, and confirm the importance of attractant breakdown in LPA-mediated cell steering.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first author of the paper.

Early Adolescent Gender Development: The Differential Effects of Felt Pressure from Parents, Peers, and the Self.

Most empirical research examining youth's gender development measures felt pressure to conform to gender norms using a composite value of felt pressure from multiple sources; however, because of the different socialization processes at work from parents, peers, and the self, analyzing these sources separately may elucidate different effects on gender development. Thus, the purpose of this study was to (a) differentiate the effects of perceived gender socialization pressure from parents, peers, and the self on early adolescents' own- and other-gender typicality, and (b) to examine whether a bi-directional relation between gender typicality and felt pressure is evident when distinguished across sources. With a sample of 212 early adolescents (54% girls; Mage = 11.11 years), felt pressure was found to be distinguishable by socialization source: adolescents' perceptions of parents, peers, and their own pressures were distinct, and each contributed differently to gender development. Pressure from self and peers were both found to relate concurrently to typicality (i.e., positively to own-gender typicality, negatively to other-gender typicality); only pressure from the self was found to have a longitudinal effect on adolescents' developing gender identity (i.e., an increase in own-gender typicality). Interestingly, other-gender typicality did not elicit higher felt pressure; in fact, it was negatively related to later felt pressure from the self, suggesting that adolescents may be developing self-acceptance of their levels of gender typicality. The findings suggest that the development of gender identity may involve a complex interplay with various sources of socialization pressures (e.g., parent, peers, self), and may further shift in relation to the adolescent's own levels of gender typicality.

Longitudinal Change in High-Cost Prosocial Behaviors of Defending and Including during the Transition to Adulthood.

Despite high profile examples that are highlighted in the popular media, we know little about high-cost prosocial behaviors such as defending and including, and how these behaviors might change over time and vary by individual. Thus, this study explored defending and including behaviors across the transition to adulthood by assessing growth and profiles of these high-cost prosocial behaviors over a four-year time span. In addition the study explored gender, emotional (sympathy), cognitive (personal values), individual (self-esteem), and relational (maternal warmth) factors during adolescence that predicted profiles of defending and including during the transition to adulthood. Participants were 469 individuals (52% female, 70% European American) who participated at four time points (ages 18-21). Growth curve analyses showed that defending and including behaviors decreased slightly across the transition to adulthood and these behaviors tended to vary as a function of the target of the behavior. Latent profile analyses revealed three groups at each age, one with low, one with medium, and one with high levels of defending and including. The discussion focused on the prevalence and change in defending and including behaviors during the transition to adulthood, as well as the variability that exists in high-cost behavioral profiles.

How do men and women help? Validation of a multidimensional measure of prosocial behavior.

The current study sought to address gender differences in prosocial behavior by creating and validating a multidimensional measure of prosocial behavior that more fully captures the ways that men help others. The new measure is directed toward family, friend, and strangers, and has five factors: defending, emotional support, inclusion, physical helping, and sharing. In Study 1, CFA analyses performed on a sample of 463 emerging adults online (mean age 23.42) revealed good model fit and divergent validity for each of the five factors. Study 2 replicated the analyses on a sample of 453 urban adolescents in the Northwest (mean age 18.37). Results established that all factors had good model fit, construct validity, and convergent validity. The discussion focuses on implications of this measure for future prosocial research including an increased diversity in how people (particularly men) help others and developmental differences toward different targets of prosocial behavior.

Does Helping Keep Teens Protected? Longitudinal Bidirectional Relations Between Prosocial Behavior and Problem Behavior.

The current study examined bidirectional, longitudinal links between prosocial and problem behavior. Participants (N = 500) were recruited from a Northwestern city in the United States and assessed for 3 consecutive years from 2009 to 2011 (M(age) of youth at Time 1 = 13.32, SD = 1.05; 52% girls; 67% European American, 33% single-parent families). Results suggested that effects of earlier prosocial behavior toward family and strangers were predictive of fewer problem behaviors 2 years later, while results for prosocial behavior toward friends were more mixed. Results also suggested depression predicted lower prosocial behavior toward family members and anxiety predicted higher prosocial behavior toward friends. Findings show a complex pattern of relations that demonstrate the need to consider targets of helping.

Parents' judgments of children's gender-typed play indicate qualities of the early-life caregiving environment.

Play is critical for children's development but is the target of significant gender stereotyping. Early in life, parents must navigate these stereotypes on behalf of their children. This study examined typologies of caregivers' judgments toward their infants' future engagement with toys and activities considered typical of same- and different-gender peers, and whether these judgments indicated qualities of the child-rearing environment. We conducted a latent profile analysis on a sample of 501 families with infant children in a large city in the Western United States (501 mothers, 388 fathers; 69% White, 16% Latinx, 8% African American). Results showed that parents could be classified as androgynous, stereotyped, counterstereotyped, or gender-impartial in their preferences for their child's toys and activities. Mothers who displayed androgynous and counterstereotyped preferences-primarily conveying approval different-gender-typed play-were rated higher on objective assessments of the quality of the home environment and parent-child interactions. How parents orient to cultural gendered messages for children's play may have implications for the overall parenting environment. We discuss implications for research and practice. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).