Challenges with PrEP Uptake and Adherence Among Gay, Bisexual, and Other Men Who Have Sex with Men in Kisumu, Kenya.

Data on challenges with pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) uptake and adherence among Kenyan gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (GBMSM) are limited. In this mixed-methods sequential explanatory design study, our quantitative phase followed 157 at-risk, HIV-negative GBMSM who accepted PrEP and enrolled in a cohort with 12-month follow-up. Stored dried blood spots collected at two intervals were batch tested for tenofovir diphosphate (TFV-DP) concentrations at study end. Despite high self-reported adherence, only 14.6% of individuals had protective TFV-DP levels at any visit. Protective TFV-DP levels were positively associated with injection drug use and a self-assessed moderate risk of acquiring HIV, and negatively associated with time since enrolment. In our subsequent qualitative phase, an intensive workshop was conducted with the GBMSM community to identify barriers and facilitators to PrEP uptake and adherence. These data revealed numerous challenges with traditional PrEP programs that must be addressed through community collaborations.

RESUMEN: La evidencia respecto a desafíos existentes con aceptación y adherencia de la profilaxis previa a la exposición (PrEP) de VIH, entre los hombres homosexuales, bisexuales y otros hombres que tienen sexo con hombres (GBMSM) en Kenia es limitada. Condujimos un estudio de métodos mixtos y diseño explicativo secuencial. En la fase cuantitativa seguimos a 157 GBMSM VIH-negativos en riesgo que aceptaron PrEP y se inscribieron en una cohorte con un seguimiento de 12 meses. Analizamos, por lotes y al final del estudio, gotas de sangre seca recolectada a dos intervalos de tiempo y previamente almacenada, para determinar las concentraciones de difosfato de tenofovir (TFV-DP). A pesar de la alta adherencia autoinformada, solo el 14,6% de las personas tenían niveles protectores de TFV-DP en alguna visita. Los niveles protectores de TFV-DP se asociaron positivamente con el uso de drogas inyectables y un riesgo moderado autoevaluado de contraer el VIH, y negativamente con el tiempo transcurrido desde la inscripción. En la fase cualitativa posterior, conversamos con GBMSM de la comunidad para identificar las barreras y los facilitadores para la concientización, aceptación, adherencia y retención a PrEP. Estos datos revelaron numerosos desafíos con los programas tradicionales de PrEP que deben abordarse mediante colaboraciones comunitarias.

Depressive Symptoms, Alcohol and Drug Use, and Physical and Sexual Abuse Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in Kisumu, Kenya: The Anza Mapema Study.

Men who have sex with men (MSM) are disproportionately burdened by depressive symptoms and psychosocial conditions including alcohol and substance abuse as well as physical and sexual abuse. We examined sociodemographic and psychosocial factors associated with depressive symptoms at baseline among a cohort of MSM in Kisumu, Kenya. Depressive symptoms were assessed via the Personal Health Questionnaire 9 instrument and examined dichotomously. We performed multivariable modified Poisson regression with robust standard errors for the binary outcome. Among 711 participants: 11.4% reported severe depressive symptoms; 50.1% reported harmful alcohol abuse; 23.8% reported moderate substance abuse; 80.9% reported any childhood physical or sexual abuse; and 39.1% experienced recent trauma due to same-sex behaviors. In the final multivariable model, severe depressive symptoms were more common for men who were ≥ 30 years old, had completed ≤ 8 years of education, had experienced childhood physical or sexual abuse, and had recently experienced trauma due to same-sex behaviors. Our results demonstrate that comprehensive services capable of identifying and addressing depressive symptoms, alcohol and substance abuse, and physical and sexual abuse must be expanded within this sample of MSM.

Factors associated with viral suppression among HIV-positive Kenyan gay and bisexual men who have sex with men.

The UNAIDS 90-90-90 target has prioritized achieving high rates of viral suppression. We identified factors associated with viral suppression among HIV-positive gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (GBMSM) in Kisumu, Kenya. HIV-positive participants in the Anza Mapema study were offered antiretroviral therapy (ART) regardless of CD4 count. HIV viral load was assessed at baseline and after 6 and 12 months of follow-up. Viral suppression was defined as <1,000 copies/mL. Sociodemographic, sexual behaviors, and psychosocial characteristics were assessed via audio computer-assisted self interview. We used generalized estimating equations to estimate the associations between baseline and time-dependent predictors and viral suppression at 6 and 12 months. Seventy-five HIV-positive men were enrolled in the Anza Mapema study, of which 63 had at least one viral load measured during follow-up. Among 52 men with a viral load measure at month 6, 37 (71%) were on ART and virally suppressed. Among 59 men with a viral load measure at month 12, 37 (63%) were on ART and virally suppressed. In the final multivariable model, men who reported receptive or versatile sexual position during anal intercourse with a male partner had reduced odds of viral suppression (aOR = 0.20; 95% CI: 0.08-0.50). Greater levels of coping self-efficacy were associated with increased odds of viral suppression (aOR = 1.10; 95% CI: 1.03-1.16). Despite extensive initiation, retention, and adherence support, the rate of viral suppression in this population did not meet the UNAIDS 90-90-90 target (81% for individuals aware of their HIV status). Pervasive stigma against male-male sex, especially men who practice receptive anal sex, may underlie our findings, which highlight the need for advocacy and stigma reduction efforts. Because coping self-efficacy was a protective factor, efforts to promote resilience in addition to healthy sexual identity development may lead to improved care outcomes among GBMSM in this area.

Enrolment characteristics associated with retention among HIV negative Kenyan gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men enrolled in the Anza Mapema cohort study.

INTRODUCTION: Most gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men (GBMSM) live in rights-constrained environments making retaining them in research to be as hard as recruiting them. To evaluate Anza Mapema, an HIV risk-reduction programme in Kisumu, Kenya, we examined the enrolment sociodemographic, behavioural, psychosocial and clinical factors associated with missing two or more follow-up visits for GBMSM participating in Anza Mapema. METHODS: Between August 2015 and November 2017, GBMSM were enrolled and followed in a prospective cohort study with quarterly visits over 12 months. At enrolment, men were tested for HIV and sexually transmitted infections and completed questionnaires via audio computer-assisted self-interview. Because the Kenya Ministry of Health recommends HIV testing every three to six months for GBMSM, the retention outcome in this cross sectional analysis was defined as missing two consecutive follow-up visits (vs. not missing two or more consecutive visits). Multivariable logistic regression estimated the adjusted odds ratios (aOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the associations of the enrolment characteristics with the binary outcome of retention. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Among 609 enrolled HIV-negative GBMSM, the median age was 23 years (interquartile range, 21 to 28 years), 19.0% had completed ≤8 years of education and 4.1% had resided in the study area <1 year at enrolment. After enrolment, 19.7% missed two consecutive follow-up visits. In the final multivariable model, the odds of missing two consecutive follow-up visits were higher for men who: resided in the study area <1 year at enrolment (aOR, 4.14; 95% CI: 1.77 to 9.68), were not living with a male sexual partner (aOR, 1.59; 95% CI: 1.01 to 2.50), and engaged in transactional sex during the last three months (aOR, 1.70; 95% CI: 1.08 to 2.67). CONCLUSIONS: One in five men missed two consecutive follow-up visits during this HIV prevention study despite intensive retention efforts and compensation for travel and participation. Participants with recent community arrival may require special support to optimize their retention in HIV prevention activities. Live-in partners of participants may be enlisted to support greater engagement in prevention programmes, and men who engage in transactional sex will need enhanced counselling and support to stay in longitudinal studies.

Factors Associated With Prevalent HIV Infection Among Kenyan MSM: The Anza Mapema Study.

BACKGROUND: To inform future HIV treatment and care programs for men who have sex with men (MSM), we assessed the prevalence of and factors associated with previously diagnosed HIV-positive and out-of-care (PDOC) or newly diagnosed HIV-positive and out-of-care (NDOC) HIV infection among MSM enrolled in the prospective Anza Mapema cohort study. METHODS: Participants were aged 18 years and older, reported oral or anal sex with a man in the past 6 months and were not already in HIV care or taking antiretroviral therapy in the past 3 months. At enrollment, men were tested for HIV infection and completed questionnaires through audio computer-assisted self-interview. Multinomial logistic regression was used to identify associations with PDOC or NDOC HIV infection, relative to HIV-negative status. RESULTS: Among 711 enrolled men, 75 (10.5%) were seropositive including 21 PDOC and 54 NDOC men. In multivariable modeling, PDOC status was more likely than HIV-negative status among men who had experienced upsetting sexual experiences during childhood, had recently experienced MSM trauma, and did not report harmful alcohol use. NDOC infection status was more common among men aged 30 years and older and who had completed ≤8 years of education, relative to HIV-negative status. CONCLUSIONS: Most HIV-positive men were unaware of their infection, indicating that HIV testing and counseling services tailored to this population are needed. To improve linkage to and retention in care, HIV testing and care services for MSM should screen and provide support for those with hazardous alcohol use and those who have experienced childhood sexual abuse or MSM trauma.