Clonally expanded CD8 T cells characterize amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-4.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a heterogenous neurodegenerative disorder that affects motor neurons and voluntary muscle control1. ALS heterogeneity includes the age of manifestation, the rate of progression and the anatomical sites of symptom onset. Disease-causing mutations in specific genes have been identified and define different subtypes of ALS1. Although several ALS-associated genes have been shown to affect immune functions2, whether specific immune features account for ALS heterogeneity is poorly understood. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis-4 (ALS4) is characterized by juvenile onset and slow progression3. Patients with ALS4 show motor difficulties by the time that they are in their thirties, and most of them require devices to assist with walking by their fifties. ALS4 is caused by mutations in the senataxin gene (SETX). Here, using Setx knock-in mice that carry the ALS4-causative L389S mutation, we describe an immunological signature that consists of clonally expanded, terminally differentiated effector memory (TEMRA) CD8 T cells in the central nervous system and the blood of knock-in mice. Increased frequencies of antigen-specific CD8 T cells in knock-in mice mirror the progression of motor neuron disease and correlate with anti-glioma immunity. Furthermore, bone marrow transplantation experiments indicate that the immune system has a key role in ALS4 neurodegeneration. In patients with ALS4, clonally expanded TEMRA CD8 T cells circulate in the peripheral blood. Our results provide evidence of an antigen-specific CD8 T cell response in ALS4, which could be used to unravel disease mechanisms and as a potential biomarker of disease state.

Biomarker Qualification for Neurofilament Light Chain in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: Theory and Practice.

OBJECTIVE: To explore whether the utility of neurofilament light chain (NfL), as a biomarker to aid amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) therapy development, would be enhanced by obtaining formal qualification from the US Food and Drug Administration for a defined context-of-use. METHODS: Consensus discussion among academic, industry, and patient advocacy group representatives. RESULTS: A wealth of scientific evidence supports the use of NfL as a prognostic, response, and potential safety biomarker in the broad ALS population, and as a risk/susceptibility biomarker among the subset of SOD1 pathogenic variant carriers. Although NfL has not yet been formally qualified for any of these contexts-of-use, the US Food and Drug Administration has provided accelerated approval for an SOD1-lowering antisense oligonucleotide, based partially on the recognition that a reduction in NfL is reasonably likely to predict a clinical benefit. INTERPRETATION: The increasing incorporation of NfL into ALS therapy development plans provides evidence that its utility-as a prognostic, response, risk/susceptibility, and/or safety biomarker-is already widely accepted by the community. The willingness of the US Food and Drug Administration to base regulatory decisions on rigorous peer-reviewed data-absent formal qualification, leads us to conclude that formal qualification, despite some benefits, is not essential for ongoing and future use of NfL as a tool to aid ALS therapy development. Although the balance of considerations for and against seeking NfL biomarker qualification will undoubtedly vary across different diseases and contexts-of-use, the robustness of the published data and careful deliberations of the ALS community may offer valuable insights for other disease communities grappling with the same issues. ANN NEUROL 2024;95:211-216.

PAD2 dysregulation and aberrant protein citrullination feature prominently in reactive astrogliosis and myelin protein aggregation in sporadic ALS.

Alteration in protein citrullination (PC), a common posttranslational modification (PTM), contributes to pathogenesis in various inflammatory disorders. We previously reported that PC and protein arginine deiminase 2 (PAD2), the predominant enzyme isoform that catalyzes this PTM in the central nervous system (CNS), are altered in mouse models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We now demonstrate that PAD2 expression and PC are altered in human postmortem ALS spinal cord and motor cortex compared to controls, increasing in astrocytes while trending lower in neurons. Furthermore, PC is enriched in protein aggregates that contain the myelin proteins PLP and MBP in ALS. These results confirm our findings in ALS mouse models and suggest that altered PAD2 and PC contribute to neurodegeneration in ALS.

The C9orf72 repeat expansion disrupts nucleocytoplasmic transport.

The hexanucleotide repeat expansion (HRE) GGGGCC (G4C2) in C9orf72 is the most common cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Recent studies support an HRE RNA gain-of-function mechanism of neurotoxicity, and we previously identified protein interactors for the G4C2 RNA including RanGAP1. A candidate-based genetic screen in Drosophila expressing 30 G4C2 repeats identified RanGAP (Drosophila orthologue of human RanGAP1), a key regulator of nucleocytoplasmic transport, as a potent suppressor of neurodegeneration. Enhancing nuclear import or suppressing nuclear export of proteins also suppresses neurodegeneration. RanGAP physically interacts with HRE RNA and is mislocalized in HRE-expressing flies, neurons from C9orf72 ALS patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC-derived neurons), and in C9orf72 ALS patient brain tissue. Nuclear import is impaired as a result of HRE expression in the fly model and in C9orf72 iPSC-derived neurons, and these deficits are rescued by small molecules and antisense oligonucleotides targeting the HRE G-quadruplexes. Nucleocytoplasmic transport defects may be a fundamental pathway for ALS and FTD that is amenable to pharmacotherapeutic intervention.

Loss of RAD-23 Protects Against Models of Motor Neuron Disease by Enhancing Mutant Protein Clearance.

Misfolded proteins accumulate and aggregate in neurodegenerative disease. The existence of these deposits reflects a derangement in the protein homeostasis machinery. Using a candidate gene screen, we report that loss of RAD-23 protects against the toxicity of proteins known to aggregate in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Loss of RAD-23 suppresses the locomotor deficit of Caenorhabditis elegans engineered to express mutTDP-43 or mutSOD1 and also protects against aging and proteotoxic insults. Knockdown of RAD-23 is further neuroprotective against the toxicity of SOD1 and TDP-43 expression in mammalian neurons. Biochemical investigation indicates that RAD-23 modifies mutTDP-43 and mutSOD1 abundance, solubility, and turnover in association with altering the ubiquitination status of these substrates. In human amyotrophic lateral sclerosis spinal cord, we find that RAD-23 abundance is increased and RAD-23 is mislocalized within motor neurons. We propose a novel pathophysiological function for RAD-23 in the stabilization of mutated proteins that cause neurodegeneration. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: In this work, we identify RAD-23, a component of the protein homeostasis network and nucleotide excision repair pathway, as a modifier of the toxicity of two disease-causing, misfolding-prone proteins, SOD1 and TDP-43. Reducing the abundance of RAD-23 accelerates the degradation of mutant SOD1 and TDP-43 and reduces the cellular content of the toxic species. The existence of endogenous proteins that act as "anti-chaperones" uncovers new and general targets for therapeutic intervention.

Distinct conformers of transmissible misfolded SOD1 distinguish human SOD1-FALS from other forms of familial and sporadic ALS.

Evidence of misfolded wild-type superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) has been detected in spinal cords of sporadic ALS (sALS) patients, suggesting an etiological relationship to SOD1-associated familial ALS (fALS). Given that there are currently a number of promising therapies under development that target SOD1, it is of critical importance to better understand the role of misfolded SOD1 in sALS. We previously demonstrated the permissiveness of the G85R-SOD1:YFP mouse model for MND induction following injection with tissue homogenates from paralyzed transgenic mice expressing SOD1 mutations. This prompted us to examine whether WT SOD1 can self-propagate misfolding of the G85R-SOD1:YFP protein akin to what has been observed with mutant SOD1. Using the G85R-SOD1:YFP mice, we demonstrate that misfolded conformers of recombinant WT SOD1, produced in vitro, induce MND with a distinct inclusion pathology. Furthermore, the distinct pathology remains upon successive passages in the G85R-SOD1:YFP mice, strongly supporting the notion for conformation-dependent templated propagation and SOD1 strains. To determine the presence of a similar misfolded WT SOD1 conformer in sALS tissue, we screened homogenates from patients diagnosed with sALS, fALS, and non-ALS disease in an organotypic spinal cord slice culture assay. Slice cultures from G85R-SOD1:YFP mice exposed to spinal homogenates from patients diagnosed with ALS caused by the A4V mutation in SOD1 developed robust inclusion pathology, whereas spinal homogenates from more than 30 sALS cases and various controls failed. These findings suggest that mutant SOD1 has prion-like attributes that do not extend to SOD1 in sALS tissues.

RAN proteins and RNA foci from antisense transcripts in C9ORF72 ALS and frontotemporal dementia.

The finding that a GGGGCC (G4C2) hexanucleotide repeat expansion in the chromosome 9 ORF 72 (C9ORF72) gene is a common cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) links ALS/FTD to a large group of unstable microsatellite diseases. Previously, we showed that microsatellite expansion mutations can be bidirectionally transcribed and that these mutations express unexpected proteins by a unique mechanism, repeat-associated non-ATG (RAN) translation. In this study, we show that C9ORF72 antisense transcripts are elevated in the brains of C9ORF72 expansion-positive [C9(+)] patients, and antisense GGCCCC (G2C4) repeat-expansion RNAs accumulate in nuclear foci in brain. Additionally, sense and antisense foci accumulate in blood and are potential biomarkers of the disease. Furthermore, we show that RAN translation occurs from both sense and antisense expansion transcripts, resulting in the expression of six RAN proteins (antisense: Pro-Arg, Pro-Ala, Gly-Pro; and sense: Gly-Ala, Gly-Arg, Gly-Pro). These proteins accumulate in cytoplasmic aggregates in affected brain regions, including the frontal and motor cortex, hippocampus, and spinal cord neurons, with some brain regions showing dramatic RAN protein accumulation and clustering. The finding that unique antisense G2C4 RNA foci and three unique antisense RAN proteins accumulate in patient tissues indicates that bidirectional transcription of expanded alleles is a fundamental pathologic feature of C9ORF72 ALS/FTD. Additionally, these findings suggest the need to test therapeutic strategies that target both sense and antisense RNAs and RAN proteins in C9ORF72 ALS/FTD, and to more broadly consider the role of antisense expression and RAN translation across microsatellite expansion diseases.

Distinct transcriptomic profile of satellite cells contributes to preservation of neuromuscular junctions in extraocular muscles of ALS mice.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neuromuscular disorder characterized by progressive weakness of almost all skeletal muscles, whereas extraocular muscles (EOMs) are comparatively spared. While hindlimb and diaphragm muscles of end-stage SOD1G93A (G93A) mice (a familial ALS mouse model) exhibit severe denervation and depletion of Pax7 + satellite cells (SCs), we found that the pool of SCs and the integrity of neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) are maintained in EOMs. In cell sorting profiles, SCs derived from hindlimb and diaphragm muscles of G93A mice exhibit denervation-related activation, whereas SCs from EOMs of G93A mice display spontaneous (non-denervation-related) activation, similar to SCs from wild-type mice. Specifically, cultured EOM SCs contain more abundant transcripts of axon guidance molecules, including Cxcl12 , along with more sustainable renewability than the diaphragm and hindlimb counterparts under differentiation pressure. In neuromuscular co-culture assays, AAV-delivery of Cxcl12 to G93A-hindlimb SC-derived myotubes enhances motor neuron axon extension and innervation, recapitulating the innervation capacity of EOM SC-derived myotubes. G93A mice fed with sodium butyrate (NaBu) supplementation exhibited less NMJ loss in hindlimb and diaphragm muscles. Additionally, SCs derived from G93A hindlimb and diaphragm muscles displayed elevated expression of Cxcl12 and improved renewability following NaBu treatment in vitro . Thus, the NaBu-induced transcriptomic changes resembling the patterns of EOM SCs may contribute to the beneficial effects observed in G93A mice. More broadly, the distinct transcriptomic profile of EOM SCs may offer novel therapeutic targets to slow progressive neuromuscular functional decay in ALS and provide possible "response biomarkers" in pre-clinical and clinical studies.

Distinct transcriptomic profile of satellite cells contributes to preservation of neuromuscular junctions in extraocular muscles of ALS mice.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neuromuscular disorder characterized by progressive weakness of almost all skeletal muscles, whereas extraocular muscles (EOMs) are comparatively spared. While hindlimb and diaphragm muscles of end-stage SOD1G93A (G93A) mice (a familial ALS mouse model) exhibit severe denervation and depletion of Pax7+satellite cells (SCs), we found that the pool of SCs and the integrity of neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) are maintained in EOMs. In cell sorting profiles, SCs derived from hindlimb and diaphragm muscles of G93A mice exhibit denervation-related activation, whereas SCs from EOMs of G93A mice display spontaneous (non-denervation-related) activation, similar to SCs from wild-type mice. Specifically, cultured EOM SCs contain more abundant transcripts of axon guidance molecules, including Cxcl12, along with more sustainable renewability than the diaphragm and hindlimb counterparts under differentiation pressure. In neuromuscular co-culture assays, AAV-delivery of Cxcl12 to G93A-hindlimb SC-derived myotubes enhances motor neuron axon extension and innervation, recapitulating the innervation capacity of EOM SC-derived myotubes. G93A mice fed with sodium butyrate (NaBu) supplementation exhibited less NMJ loss in hindlimb and diaphragm muscles. Additionally, SCs derived from G93A hindlimb and diaphragm muscles displayed elevated expression of Cxcl12 and improved renewability following NaBu treatment in vitro. Thus, the NaBu-induced transcriptomic changes resembling the patterns of EOM SCs may contribute to the beneficial effects observed in G93A mice. More broadly, the distinct transcriptomic profile of EOM SCs may offer novel therapeutic targets to slow progressive neuromuscular functional decay in ALS and provide possible 'response biomarkers' in pre-clinical and clinical studies.

Listener effort quantifies clinically meaningful progression of dysarthria in people living with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative motor neuron disease that causes progressive muscle weakness. Progressive bulbar dysfunction causes dysarthria and thus social isolation, reducing quality of life. The Everything ALS Speech Study obtained longitudinal clinical information and speech recordings from 292 participants. In a subset of 120 participants, we measured speaking rate (SR) and listener effort (LE), a measure of dysarthria severity rated by speech pathologists from recordings. LE intra- and inter-rater reliability was very high (ICC 0.88 to 0.92). LE correlated with other measures of dysarthria at baseline. LE changed over time in participants with ALS (slope 0.77 pts/month; p<0.001) but not controls (slope 0.005 pts/month; p=0.807). The slope of LE progression was similar in all participants with ALS who had bulbar dysfunction at baseline, regardless of ALS site of onset. LE could be a remotely collected clinically meaningful clinical outcome assessment for ALS clinical trials.

Iatrogenic Exserohilum infection of the central nervous system: mycological identification and histopathological findings.

An outbreak of fungal infections has been identified in patients who received epidural injections of methylprednisolone acetate that was contaminated with environmental molds. In this report, we present the mycological and histopathological findings in an index case of Exserohilum meningitis and vasculitis in an immunocompetent patient, who received a cervical spine epidural steroid injection for chronic neck pain 1 week before the onset of fulminant meningitis with subsequent multiple brain and spinal cord infarcts. The fungus was recovered from two separate cerebrospinal fluid specimens collected before initiation of antifungal therapy and at autopsy on standard bacterial and fungal culture media. The mold was identified phenotypically as Exserohilum species. DNA sequencing targeting the internal transcribed spacer region and D1/D2 region of 28S ribosomal DNA enabled further speciation as E. rostratum. Gross examination at autopsy revealed moderate brain edema with bilateral uncal herniation and a ventriculostomy tract to the third ventricle. The brainstem, cerebellum, and right orbitofrontal cortex were soft and friable, along with hemorrhages in the cerebellar vermis and thalamus. Microscopic examination demonstrated numerous fungi with septate hyphae invading blood vessel walls and inducing acute necrotizing inflammation. The leptomeninges were diffusely infiltrated by mixed inflammatory cells along with scattered foci of fungal elements. This is the first report of iatrogenic E. rostratum meningitis in humans. This report describes the microbiological procedures and histopathological features for the identification of E. rostratum (a pigmented vascularly invasive fungi), the cause of a current nationwide outbreak of fatal fungal meningitis.

Globally reduced N6-methyladenosine (m6A) in C9ORF72-ALS/FTD dysregulates RNA metabolism and contributes to neurodegeneration.

Repeat expansion in C9ORF72 is the most common genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Here we show that N6-methyladenosine (m6A), the most prevalent internal mRNA modification, is downregulated in C9ORF72-ALS/FTD patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-differentiated neurons and postmortem brain tissues. The global m6A hypomethylation leads to transcriptome-wide mRNA stabilization and upregulated gene expression, particularly for genes involved in synaptic activity and neuronal function. Moreover, the m6A modification in the C9ORF72 intron sequence upstream of the expanded repeats enhances RNA decay via the nuclear reader YTHDC1, and the antisense RNA repeats can also be regulated through m6A modification. The m6A reduction increases the accumulation of repeat RNAs and the encoded poly-dipeptides, contributing to disease pathogenesis. We further demonstrate that, by elevating m6A methylation, we could significantly reduce repeat RNA levels from both strands and the derived poly-dipeptides, rescue global mRNA homeostasis and improve survival of C9ORF72-ALS/FTD patient iPSC-derived neurons.

Analysis of proteome-wide degradation dynamics in ALS SOD1 iPSC-derived patient neurons reveals disrupted VCP homeostasis.

Mutations in SOD1 cause amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) through gain-of-function effects, yet the mechanisms by which misfolded mutant SOD1 (mutSOD1) protein impairs human motor neurons (MNs) remain unclear. Here, we use induced-pluripotent-stem-cell-derived MNs coupled to metabolic stable isotope labeling and mass spectrometry to investigate proteome-wide degradation dynamics. We find several proteins, including the ALS-causal valosin-containing protein (VCP), which predominantly acts in proteasome degradation and autophagy, that degrade slower in mutSOD1 relative to isogenic control MNs. The interactome of VCP is altered in mutSOD1 MNs in vitro, while VCP selectively accumulates in the affected motor cortex of ALS-SOD1 patients. Overexpression of VCP rescues mutSOD1 toxicity in MNs in vitro and in a C. elegans model in vivo, in part due to its ability to modulate the degradation of insoluble mutSOD1. Our results demonstrate that VCP contributes to mutSOD1-dependent degeneration, link two distinct ALS-causal genes, and highlight selective protein degradation impairment in ALS pathophysiology.

Somatic Mosaicism in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Frontotemporal Dementia Reveals Widespread Degeneration from Focal Mutations.

Although mutations in dozens of genes have been implicated in familial forms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (fALS) and frontotemporal degeneration (fFTD), most cases of these conditions are sporadic (sALS and sFTD), with no family history, and their etiology remains obscure. We tested the hypothesis that somatic mosaic mutations, present in some but not all cells, might contribute in these cases, by performing ultra-deep, targeted sequencing of 88 genes associated with neurodegenerative diseases in postmortem brain and spinal cord samples from 404 individuals with sALS or sFTD and 144 controls. Known pathogenic germline mutations were found in 20.6% of ALS, and 26.5% of FTD cases. Predicted pathogenic somatic mutations in ALS/FTD genes were observed in 2.7% of sALS and sFTD cases that did not carry known pathogenic or novel germline mutations. Somatic mutations showed low variant allele fraction (typically <2%) and were often restricted to the region of initial discovery, preventing detection through genetic screening in peripheral tissues. Damaging somatic mutations were preferentially enriched in primary motor cortex of sALS and prefrontal cortex of sFTD, mirroring regions most severely affected in each disease. Somatic mutation analysis of bulk RNA-seq data from brain and spinal cord from an additional 143 sALS cases and 23 controls confirmed an overall enrichment of somatic mutations in sALS. Two adult sALS cases were identified bearing pathogenic somatic mutations in DYNC1H1 and LMNA, two genes associated with pediatric motor neuron degeneration. Our study suggests that somatic mutations in fALS/fFTD genes, and in genes associated with more severe diseases in the germline state, contribute to sALS and sFTD, and that mosaic mutations in a small fraction of cells in focal regions of the nervous system can ultimately result in widespread degeneration.

Expanding the spectrum of monoclonal light chain deposition disease in muscle.

INTRODUCTION: The diagnosis of amyloid myopathy is delayed when monoclonal gammopathies are not detected on initial testing and muscle biopsies are nondiagnostic, and the EMG and symptoms can mimic an inflammatory myopathy. METHODS: Case report of a patient presenting with severe progressive muscle weakness of unclear etiology despite an extensive workup including two nondiagnostic muscle biopsies. RESULTS: Directed by MRI, a third biopsy revealed amyloid angiopathy and noncongophilic kappa light chain deposition in scattered subsarcolemmal rings and perimysial regions. A serum free light chain (FLC) assay revealed a kappa monoclonal gammopathy, which was not detected by multiple immunofixations. CONCLUSIONS: The spectrum of immunoglobulin deposition in muscle is similar to other organs. It comprises a continuum that includes parenchymal amyloid deposition, amyloid angiopathy, and noncongophilic Light Chain Deposition Disease (LCDD). We recommend including the FLC assay in the routine investigation for monoclonal gammopathies. This case also highlights the value of MRI-guided muscle biopsy.

Deficient Sarcolemma Repair in ALS: A Novel Mechanism with Therapeutic Potential.

The plasma membrane (sarcolemma) of skeletal muscle myofibers is susceptible to injury caused by physical and chemical stresses during normal daily movement and/or under disease conditions. These acute plasma membrane disruptions are normally compensated by an intrinsic membrane resealing process involving interactions of multiple intracellular proteins including dysferlin, annexin, caveolin, and Mitsugumin 53 (MG53)/TRIM72. There is new evidence for compromised muscle sarcolemma repair mechanisms in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). Mitochondrial dysfunction in proximity to neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) increases oxidative stress, triggering MG53 aggregation and loss of its function. Compromised membrane repair further worsens sarcolemma fragility and amplifies oxidative stress in a vicious cycle. This article is to review existing literature supporting the concept that ALS is a disease of oxidative-stress induced disruption of muscle membrane repair that compromise the integrity of the NMJs and hence augmenting muscle membrane repair mechanisms could represent a viable therapeutic strategy for ALS.

Loss of TDP-43 function and rimmed vacuoles persist after T cell depletion in a xenograft model of sporadic inclusion body myositis.

Sporadic inclusion body myositis (IBM) is the most common acquired muscle disease in adults over age 50, yet it remains unclear whether the disease is primarily driven by T cell­mediated autoimmunity. IBM muscle biopsies display nuclear clearance and cytoplasmic aggregation of TDP-43 in muscle cells, a pathologic finding observed initially in neurodegenerative diseases, where nuclear loss of TDP-43 in neurons causes aberrant RNA splicing. Here, we show that loss of TDP-43­mediated splicing repression, as determined by inclusion of cryptic exons, occurs in skeletal muscle of subjects with IBM. Of 119 muscle biopsies tested, RT-PCR­mediated detection of cryptic exon inclusion was able to diagnose IBM with 84% sensitivity and 99% specificity. To determine the role of T cells in pathogenesis, we generated a xenograft model by transplanting human IBM muscle into the hindlimb of immunodeficient mice. Xenografts from subjects with IBM displayed robust regeneration of human myofibers and recapitulated both inflammatory and degenerative features of the disease. Myofibers in IBM xenografts showed invasion by human, oligoclonal CD8+ T cells and exhibited MHC-I up-regulation, rimmed vacuoles, mitochondrial pathology, p62-positive inclusions, and nuclear clearance and cytoplasmic aggregation of TDP-43, associated with cryptic exon inclusion. Reduction of human T cells within IBM xenografts by treating mice intraperitoneally with anti-CD3 (OKT3) suppressed MHC-I up-regulation. However, rimmed vacuoles and loss of TDP-43 function persisted. These data suggest that T cell depletion does not alter muscle degenerative pathology in IBM.

Stretch induced endothelin-1 secretion by adult rat astrocytes involves calcium influx via stretch-activated ion channels (SACs).

The expression of endothelins (ETs) and ET-receptors is often upregulated in brain pathology. ET-1, a potent vasoconstrictor, also inhibits the expression of astrocyte glutamate transporters and is mitogenic for astrocytes, glioma cells, neurons, and brain capillary endothelia. We have previously shown that mechanical stress stimulates ET-1 production by adult rat astrocytes. We now show in adult astrocytes that ET-1 production is driven by calcium influx through stretch-activated ion channels (SACs) and the ET-1 production correlates with cell proliferation. Mechanical stimulation using biaxial stretch (<20%) of a rubber substrate increased ET-1 secretion, and 4 µM GsMTx-4 (a specific inhibitor of SACs) inhibited secretion by 30%. GsMTx-4 did not alter basal ET-1 levels in the absence of stretch. Decreasing the calcium influx by lowering extracellular calcium also inhibited stretch-induced ET-1 secretion without effecting ET-1 secretion in unstretched controls. Furthermore, inhibiting SACs with the less specific inhibitor streptomycin also inhibited stretch-induced ET-1 secretion. The data can be explained with a simple model in which ET-1 secretion depends on an internal Ca(2+) threshold. This coupling of mechanical stress to the astrocyte endothelin system through SACs has treatment implications, since all pathology deforms the surrounding parenchyma.

Tonic status and electrodecremental paroxysms in an adult without epilepsy.

Electrodecremental status epilepticus is classically described in infants and children with severe refractory epilepsy, mental retardation, and structural brain abnormalities. We describe a 24-year-old woman who presented to the emergency department with prolonged tonic status epilepticus which evolved into stimulus-induced diffuse voltage attenuation (SIDVA) pattern in the setting of aseptic meningoencephalitis. There was no history of seizures or further events after recovery. This is the first report of a SIDVA pattern in an adult without a history of epilepsy.