Dynamic changes in tRNA modifications and abundance during T cell activation.

The tRNA pool determines the efficiency, throughput, and accuracy of translation. Previous studies have identified dynamic changes in the tRNA (transfer RNA) supply and mRNA (messenger RNA) demand during cancerous proliferation. Yet dynamic changes may also occur during physiologically normal proliferation, and these are less well characterized. We examined the tRNA and mRNA pools of T cells during their vigorous proliferation and differentiation upon triggering their antigen receptor. We observed a global signature of switch in demand for codons at the early proliferation phase of the response, accompanied by corresponding changes in tRNA expression levels. In the later phase, upon differentiation, the response of the tRNA pool relaxed back to the basal level, potentially restraining excessive proliferation. Sequencing of tRNAs allowed us to evaluate their diverse base-modifications. We found that two types of tRNA modifications, wybutosine and ms2t6A, are reduced dramatically during T cell activation. These modifications occur in the anticodon loops of two tRNAs that decode "slippery codons," which are prone to ribosomal frameshifting. Attenuation of these frameshift-protective modifications is expected to increase the potential for proteome-wide frameshifting during T cell proliferation. Indeed, human cell lines deleted of a wybutosine writer showed increased ribosomal frameshifting, as detected with an HIV gag-pol frameshifting site reporter. These results may explain HIV's specific tropism toward proliferating T cells since it requires ribosomal frameshift exactly on the corresponding codon for infection. The changes in tRNA expression and modifications uncover a layer of translation regulation during T cell proliferation and expose a potential tradeoff between cellular growth and translation fidelity.

Clonal expansion under the microscope: studying lymphocyte activation and differentiation using live-cell imaging.

Clonal expansion of lymphocytes is a hallmark of vertebrate adaptive immunity. A small number of precursor cells that recognize a specific antigen proliferate into expanded clones, differentiate and acquire various effector and memory phenotypes, which promote effective immune responses. Recent studies establish a large degree of heterogeneity in the level of expansion and in cell state between and within expanding clones. Studying these processes in vivo, while providing insightful information on the level of heterogeneity, is challenging due to the complex microenvironment and the inability to continuously track individual cells over extended periods of time. Live cell imaging of ex vivo cultures within micro fabricated arrays provides an attractive methodology for studying clonal expansion. These experiments facilitate continuous acquisition of a large number of parameters on cell number, proliferation, death and differentiation state, with single-cell resolution on thousands of expanding clones that grow within controlled environments. Such data can reveal stochastic and instructive mechanisms that contribute to observed heterogeneity and elucidate the sequential order of differentiation events. Intercellular interactions can also be studied within these arrays by following responses of a controlled number of interacting cells, all trapped within the same microwell. Here we describe implementations of live-cell imaging within microwell arrays for studies of lymphocyte clonal expansion, portray insights already gained from these experiments and outline directions for future research. These tools, together with in vivo experiments tracking single-cell responses, will expand our understanding of adaptive immunity and the ways by which it can be manipulated.

Spatial transcriptomics defines injury specific microenvironments and cellular interactions in kidney regeneration and disease.

Kidney injury disrupts the intricate renal architecture and triggers limited regeneration, together with injury-invoked inflammation and fibrosis. Deciphering the molecular pathways and cellular interactions driving these processes is challenging due to the complex tissue structure. Here, we apply single cell spatial transcriptomics to examine ischemia-reperfusion injury in the mouse kidney. Spatial transcriptomics reveals injury-specific and spatially-dependent gene expression patterns in distinct cellular microenvironments within the kidney and predicts Clcf1-Crfl1 in a molecular interplay between persistently injured proximal tubule cells and their neighboring fibroblasts. Immune cell types play a critical role in organ repair. Spatial analysis identifies cellular microenvironments resembling early tertiary lymphoid structures and associated molecular pathways. Collectively, this study supports a focus on molecular interactions in cellular microenvironments to enhance understanding of injury, repair and disease.

Spatial transcriptomics defines injury-specific microenvironments in the adult mouse kidney and novel cellular interactions in regeneration and disease.

Kidney injury disrupts the intricate renal architecture and triggers limited regeneration, and injury-invoked inflammation and fibrosis. Deciphering molecular pathways and cellular interactions driving these processes is challenging due to the complex renal architecture. Here, we applied single cell spatial transcriptomics to examine ischemia-reperfusion injury in the mouse kidney. Spatial transcriptomics revealed injury-specific and spatially-dependent gene expression patterns in distinct cellular microenvironments within the kidney and predicted Clcf1-Crfl1 in a molecular interplay between persistently injured proximal tubule cells and neighboring fibroblasts. Immune cell types play a critical role in organ repair. Spatial analysis revealed cellular microenvironments resembling early tertiary lymphoid structures and identified associated molecular pathways. Collectively, this study supports a focus on molecular interactions in cellular microenvironments to enhance understanding of injury, repair and disease.

Facilitated DNA search by multidomain transcription factors: cross talk via a flexible linker.

More than 70% of eukaryotic proteins are composed of multiple domains. However, most studies of the search for DNA focus on individual protein domains and do not consider potential cross talk within a multidomain transcription factor. In this study, the molecular features of the DNA search mechanism were explored for two multidomain transcription factors: human Pax6 and Oct-1. Using a simple computational model, we compared a DNA search of multidomain proteins with a search of isolated domains. Furthermore, we studied how manipulating the binding affinity of a single domain to DNA can affect the overall DNA search of the multidomain protein. Tethering the two domains via a flexible linker increases their affinity to the DNA, resulting in a higher propensity for sliding along the DNA, which is more significant for the domain with the weaker DNA-binding affinity. In this case, the domain that binds DNA more tightly anchors the multidomain protein to the DNA and, via the linker, increases the local concentration of the weak DNA-binding domain (DBD). The tethered domains directly exchange between two parallel DNA molecules via a bridged intermediate, where intersegmental transfer is promoted by the weaker DBD. We found that, in general, the relative affinity of the two domains can significantly affect the cross talk between them and thus their overall capability to search DNA efficiently. The results we obtained by examining various multidomain DNA-binding proteins support the necessity of discrepancies between the DNA-binding affinities of the constituent domains.

Induction of CD4 T cell memory by local cellular collectivity.

Cell differentiation is directed by signals driving progenitors into specialized cell types. This process can involve collective decision-making, when differentiating cells determine their lineage choice by interacting with each other. We used live-cell imaging in microwell arrays to study collective processes affecting differentiation of naïve CD4+ T cells into memory precursors. We found that differentiation of precursor memory T cells sharply increases above a threshold number of locally interacting cells. These homotypic interactions involve the cytokines interleukin-2 (IL-2) and IL-6, which affect memory differentiation orthogonal to their effect on proliferation and survival. Mathematical modeling suggests that the differentiation rate is continuously modulated by the instantaneous number of locally interacting cells. This cellular collectivity can prioritize allocation of immune memory to stronger responses.

Autonomous TNF is critical for in vivo monocyte survival in steady state and inflammation.

Monocytes are circulating mononuclear phagocytes, poised to extravasate to sites of inflammation and differentiate into monocyte-derived macrophages and dendritic cells. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and its receptors are up-regulated during monopoiesis and expressed by circulating monocytes, as well as effector monocytes infiltrating certain sites of inflammation, such as the spinal cord, during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). In this study, using competitive in vitro and in vivo assays, we show that monocytes deficient for TNF or TNF receptors are outcompeted by their wild-type counterpart. Moreover, monocyte-autonomous TNF is critical for the function of these cells, as TNF ablation in monocytes/macrophages, but not in microglia, delayed the onset of EAE in challenged animals and was associated with reduced acute spinal cord infiltration of Ly6Chi effector monocytes. Collectively, our data reveal a previously unappreciated critical cell-autonomous role of TNF on monocytes for their survival, maintenance, and function.

Dynamic single-cell measurements of gene expression in primary lymphocytes: challenges, tools and prospects.

Lymphocyte populations show a high level of phenotypic variability and are highly heterogeneous in their gene expression patterns. Studying this cell-to-cell variability, the processes which generate it and its implications for lymphocyte function can be advanced by live cell imaging combined with measurements of gene expression at the single-cell level. However, until recently such studies were limited due to the high motility of primary lymphocytes following their activation, their clustering that precludes single-cell analysis and the prolonged duration of relevant processes such as cell differentiation. In this review, we describe recent methodological advances, which enable single-cell studies of primary lymphocytes, and present some applications of these new techniques. We focus our discussion on microwell arrays. These arrays are typically comprised of thousands of small microwells in which primary lymphocytes can be trapped and imaged over long periods of time. This allows for quantitative evaluation of various cellular processes including cell proliferation, cell death, cytokine secretion and measurements of gene expression at the single-cell level. These advances pave the way for future studies of population variability, dynamic cell responses, stochasticity in gene expression and intercellular interactions between functional lymphocytes in controlled microenvironments.

Monitoring the dynamics of primary T cell activation and differentiation using long term live cell imaging in microwell arrays.

Methods that allow monitoring of individual cells over time, using live cell imaging, are essential for studying dynamical cellular processes in heterogeneous cell populations such as primary T lymphocytes. However, applying single cell time-lapse microscopy to study activation and differentiation of these cells was limited due to a number of reasons. First, primary naïve T cells are non-adherent and become highly motile upon activation through their antigen receptor. Second, CD4(+) T cell differentiation is a relatively slow process which takes 3-4 days. As a result, long-term dynamic monitoring of individual cells during the course of activation and differentiation is challenging as cells rapidly escape out of the microscope field of view. Here we present and characterize a platform which enables capture and growth of primary T lymphocytes with minimal perturbation, allowing for long-term monitoring of cell activation and differentiation. We use standard cell culture plates combined with PDMS based arrays containing thousands of deep microwells in which primary CD4(+) T cells are trapped and activated by antigen coated microbeads. We demonstrate that this system allows for live cell imaging of individual T cells for up to 72 h, providing quantitative data on cell proliferation and death times. In addition, we continuously monitor dynamics of gene expression in those cells, of either intracellular proteins using cells from transgenic mice expressing fluorescent reporter proteins, or cell surface proteins using fluorescently labeled antibodies. Finally, we show how intercellular interactions between different cell types can be investigated using our device. This system provides a new platform in which dynamical processes and intercellular interactions within heterogeneous populations of primary T cells can be studied at the single cell level.