Self-reported depression and social support are associated with egocentric network characteristics of HIV-infected women of color.

BACKGROUND: We explore the social network characteristics associated with depressive symptoms and social support among HIV-infected women of color (WOC). METHODS: Network data were collected from 87 HIV-infected WOC at an academic Infectious Disease clinic in the United States (US) south. With validated instruments, interviewers also asked about depressive symptoms, social support, and treatment-specific social support. Linear regression models resulted in beta coefficients and 95% confidence intervals for the relationships among network characteristics, depression, and support provision. RESULTS: Financial support provision was associated with lower reported depressive symptoms while emotional support provision was associated with increased reported social support. Talking less than daily to the first person named in her network, the primary alter, was associated with a nearly 3-point decrease in reported social support for respondents. Having people in their social network who knew their HIV status was also important. CONCLUSIONS: We found that both functional and structural social network characteristics contributed to perceptions of support by HIV-infected WOC.

Ancillary service needs among persons new to HIV care and the relationship between needs and late presentation to care.

Ancillary service needs likely influence time to diagnosis and presentation for HIV care. The effect of both met and unmet needs on late presentation to HIV care is not well understood. We used baseline data from 348 people with HIV (PWH) with no prior HIV care who enrolled in iENGAGE (a randomized controlled trial (RCT) of an intervention to support retention in care) at one of four HIV clinics in the US. A standardized baseline questionnaire collected information on ancillary service needs, and whether each need was presently unmet. We examined covariates known to be associated with disease stage at presentation to care and their association with needs. We subsequently assessed the relationship of needs with CD4 accounting for those other covariates by estimating prevalence ratios (PR) using inverse probability weights. Most patients enrolling in the RCT were male (79%) and the majority were Black (62%); median age was 34 years. Prevalence of any reported individual need was 69%. One-third of the sample had a baseline CD4 cell count <200, 42% between 200 and 499 and 27% ≥500. There was no statistically significant association between need or unmet need and baseline CD4. In general, psychiatric health and SU issues (depression, anxiety, and drug use) were consistently associated with higher prevalence of need (met and unmet). Additionally, the Black race was associated with higher basic resource needs (housing: PR 1.67, 95%CI 1.08-2.59; transportation: PR 1.65, 95% CI 1.12-2.45). Ancillary service needs (met and unmet) were common among patients new to HIV care and impacted vulnerable subgroups. However, we found no evidence that reporting a specific individual need, whether met or unmet, was associated with a timely presentation to HIV care. The impact of needs on subsequent steps of the HIV care continuum will be examined with longitudinal data.

Pain is Associated with Missed Clinic Visits Among HIV-Positive Women.

Pain is highly prevalent among HIV-positive individuals, with women representing a large subset of those with pain. However, little is known about the relationship between pain and retention in HIV medical care. Among a cohort of HIV-positive women of color, we evaluated the association between pain and retention in care, as measured by missed clinic visits. The Health Resources and Services Administration's Women of Color Initiative was a multi-site observational cohort study evaluating demonstration projects to engage HIV-positive women in medical care. From November 2010 to July 2013, 921 women were enrolled in the study across nine U.S. sites; baseline interviews collected data on socio-demographic, clinical, and risk behavior characteristics. Pain was assessed at baseline based on number of days in pain over the last 30 days and was categorized as no pain (0 days), infrequent pain (1-13 days), and frequent pain (14-30 days), with 14 days being the median. Missed visits over the one-year follow-up period, evaluated by chart abstraction, were dichotomized as ≤1 missed visit versus >1 missed visit. We conducted multivariate logistic regression to assess the association between pain at baseline and missed visits, adjusting for pertinent covariates. Among our sample (N = 862), 52.2 % of women reported no pain, 23.7 % reported infrequent pain and 24.1 % reported frequent pain. Forty-five percent had >1 missed visit during the one-year follow-up period. Overall, we did not find a significant association between pain and missed visits (aOR 2.30; 95 % CI 1.00-5.25). However, in planned stratified analyses, among women reporting current substance use at baseline, reporting frequent pain was associated with a higher odds of missed visits as compared with reporting no pain (aOR 15.14; 95 % CI 1.78-128.88). In our overall sample, pain was not significantly associated with missed visits. However, frequent pain was associated with missed visits among HIV-positive women of color who reported substance use at baseline. A better understanding of the relationship between pain and missed visits could guide efforts to improve retention in care in this population.

Suicidal Ideation is Associated with Limited Engagement in HIV Care.

PHQ-9 data from persons living with HIV (PLWH, n = 4099) being screened for depression in three clinics in the southeastern USA were used to determine the prevalence of suicidal ideation (SI). SI was reported by 352 (8.6 %); associated with <3 years since HIV diagnosis (1.69; 95 %CI 1.35, 2.13), and HIV RNA >50 copies/ml (1.70, 95 %CI 1.35, 2.14). Data from PLWH enrolled in a depression treatment study were used to determine the association between moderate-to-high risk SI (severity) and SI frequency reported on PHQ-9 screening. Over forty percent of persons reporting that SI occurred on "more than half the days" (by the PHQ-9) were assessed as having a moderate-to-high risk for suicide completion during the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview. SI, including moderate-to-high risk SI, remains a significant comorbid problem for PLWH who are not fully stabilized in care (as indicated by detectable HIV RNA or HIV diagnosis for less than 3 years).

Stressful and traumatic life events as disruptors to antiretroviral therapy adherence.

Stressful and traumatic life events (STLEs) are common among HIV-infected individuals and may affect health behaviors such as adherence to antiretroviral (ARV) therapy, with important implications for treatment outcomes. We examined the association between STLEs and ARV adherence among 289 US-based participants enrolled between 7/1/2010 and 9/1/2013 in a study of depression treatment for HIV-infected patients. Participants received monthly telephone calls to assess STLEs and pill count-based ARV adherence. Inverse probability of observation weighting was combined with multiple imputation to address missing data. Participants were mostly male (71%) and black (63%), with a median age of 45 years. Median monthly adherence was 96% (interquartile range (IQR): 85-100%). Participants experienced a mean of 2.48 STLEs (range: 0-14) in the previous month. The presence of ≥2 STLEs was associated with a mean change in adherence of -3.67% (95% confidence interval (CI): -7.12%, -0.21%) and decreased likelihood of achieving ≥95% adherence (risk ratio (95% CI) = 0.82 (0.71, 0.95)). For each additional STLE, the mean adherence change was -0.90% (95% CI: -1.79%, 0.00%). STLEs were associated with poorer ARV adherence, including decreased likelihood of adhering to ≥95% of ARV doses. This level of adherence has a critical role in regimen effectiveness and prevention of resistance.

Longitudinal effects of SafeTalk, a motivational interviewing-based program to improve safer sex practices among people living with HIV/AIDS.

Programs to help people living with HIV/AIDS practice safer sex are needed to prevent transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. We sought to assess the impact of SafeTalk, a multicomponent motivational interviewing-based safer sex program, on HIV-infected patients' risky sexual behavior. We enrolled sexually active adult HIV-infected patients from one of three clinical sites in North Carolina and randomized them to receive the 4-session SafeTalk intervention versus a hearthealthy attention-control. There was no significant difference in the proportion of people having unprotected sex between the two arms at enrollment. SafeTalk significantly reduced the number of unprotected sex acts with at-risk partners from baseline, while in controls the number of unprotected sex acts increased. Motivational interviewing can provide an effective, flexible prevention intervention for a heterogeneous group of people living with HIV.

Essential components of effective HIV care: a policy paper of the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Ryan White Medical Providers Coalition.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) antiretroviral agents and effective HIV care management transformed HIV disease from a death sentence to a chronic condition for many in the United States. A comprehensive HIV care model was developed to meet the complex needs of HIV patients, with support from the Ryan White program, the Veterans Administration, and others. This paper identifies the essential components of an effective HIV care model. As access to health care expands under the National HIV/AIDS Strategy and the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, it will be critical to build upon the HIV care model to realize positive health outcomes for people with HIV infection.

Psychosocial characteristics and sexual behaviors of people in care for HIV infection: an examination of men who have sex with men, heterosexual men and women.

Few studies have examined the psychosocial factors associated with sexual transmission behaviors among HIV-positive men who have sex with men (MSM), heterosexual men (MSW) and women. We enrolled 1,050 sexually active HIV-positive patients at seven HIV clinics in six US cities as part of a clinic-based behavioral intervention. We describe the sexual transmission behaviors and examine demographic, clinical, psychosocial, and clinic prevention variables associated with unprotected anal or vaginal intercourse (UAVI). Twenty-three percent of MSM, 12.3% of MSW and 27.8% of women engaged in UAVI with partners perceived to be HIV-negative or of unknown serostatus. Among MSM and MSW, having multiple partners and lower self-efficacy were associated with increased odds of UAVI. Self-rating one's health status as excellent/very good was a risk factor for UAVI among MSM. Among women, binge drinking and stressful life events were associated with UAVI. These findings identify variables that warrant attention in targeted interventions.

Triple-class antiretroviral drug resistance: risk and predictors among HIV-1-infected patients.

BACKGROUND: HIV-1 triple-class antiretroviral drug resistance (TC-DR) may substantially limit therapeutic options and compromise clinical outcomes. OBJECTIVE: To estimate TC-DR prevalence and incidence, and identify risk factors for TC-DR acquisition. METHODS: We identified patients in the University of North Carolina HIV Cohort Study with TC-DR HIV-1 variants. Nucleos(t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI), non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI), and major protease inhibitor (PI) mutations, were based on the International AIDS Society - USA guidelines. Prevalence was estimated with the exact binomial distribution, incidence with the exact Poisson distribution, and multivariable analyses were performed using logistic regression. RESULTS: Of 1587 patients, half initiated therapy with HAART (N = 789), 20% (N = 320) with non-HAART combination therapy, and 30% (N = 478) with one NRTI. The median time on therapy was 5.7 years [interquartile range (IQR) 2.9, 8.6], the median number of previous antiretroviral agents was six (IQR 4, 8), and 47% (N = 752) were exposed to at least one NRTI, NNRTI and PI. Assuming patients without genotypes did not harbor TC-DR virus, the prevalence of TC-DR among all antiretroviral-experienced patients was 8% [95% confidence interval (CI) 6%, 9%]. The prevalence was 3% (95% CI 2%, 4%) and 12% (95% CI 10%, 15%) among patients treated initially with HAART and non-HAART, respectively. The number of antiretroviral agents received and initiating therapy with non-HAART or an unboosted PI, increased TC-DR risk in multivariable analyses. CONCLUSION: The majority of patients with TC-DR have extensive antiretroviral exposure, particularly to non-HAART regimens, whereas HAART initiators are at low risk of acquiring TC-DR during a median of 4 years of follow-up.

Ongoing life stressors and suicidal ideation among HIV-infected adults with depression.

BACKGROUND: Suicidal ideation is the most proximal risk factor for suicide and can indicate extreme psychological distress; identification of its predictors is important for possible intervention. Depression and stressful or traumatic life events (STLEs), which are more common among HIV-infected individuals than the general population, may serve as triggers for suicidal thoughts. METHODS: A randomized controlled trial testing the effect of evidence-based decision support for depression treatment on antiretroviral adherence (the SLAM DUNC study) included monthly assessments of incident STLEs, and quarterly assessments of suicidal ideation (SI). We examined the association between STLEs and SI during up to one year of follow-up among 289 Southeastern US-based participants active in the study between 7/1/2011 and 4/1/2014, accounting for time-varying confounding by depressive severity with the use of marginal structural models. RESULTS: Participants were mostly male (70%) and black (62%), with a median age of 45 years, and experienced a mean of 2.36 total STLEs (range: 0-12) and 0.48 severe STLEs (range: 0-3) per month. Every additional STLE was associated with an increase in SI prevalence of 7% (prevalence ratio (PR) (95% confidence interval (CI)): 1.07 (1.00, 1.14)), and every additional severe STLE with an increase in SI prevalence of 19% (RR (95% CI): 1.19 (1.00, 1.42)). LIMITATIONS: There was a substantial amount of missing data and the exposures and outcomes were obtained via self-report; methods were tailored to address these potential limitations. CONCLUSIONS: STLEs were associated with increased SI prevalence, which is an important risk factor for suicide attempts and completions.

Improving Depression Among HIV-Infected Adults: Transporting the Effect of a Depression Treatment Intervention to Routine Care.

BACKGROUND: Depression affects 20%-30% of people with HIV. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have demonstrated the effectiveness of interventions to improve depression among HIV-infected adults, but typically have highly selected populations which may limit generalizability. Inverse probability of sampling weights (IPSW) is a recently proposed method to transport (or standardize) findings from RCTs to a specific external target population. METHODS: We used IPSW to transport the 6-month effect of the Measurement-Based Care (MBC) intervention on depression from the SLAM DUNC trial to a population of HIV-infected, depressed adults in routine care in the United States between 2010 and 2014. RESULTS: In the RCT, MBC was associated with an improvement in depression at 6 months of 3.6 points on the Hamilton Depression Rating scale [95% confidence interval (CI): -5.9 to -1.3]. When IPSW were used to standardize results from the trial to the target population, the intervention effect was attenuated by 1.2 points (mean improvement 2.4 points; 95% CI: -6.1 to 1.3). CONCLUSIONS: If implemented among HIV-infected, depressed adults in routine care, MBC may be less effective than in the RCT but can still be expected to reduce depression. Attenuation of the intervention effect among adults in routine care reflects the fact that the trial enrolled a larger proportion of individuals for whom the intervention was more effective. Given the burden of depression among HIV-infected adults, more effective interventions to improve depression are urgently needed. However, examining the transportability of trial findings is essential to understand whether similar effects can be expected if interventions are scaled-up.

HIV primary care providers--Screening, knowledge, attitudes and behaviors related to alcohol interventions.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol has particularly harmful health effects in HIV-infected patients; therefore, HIV clinics are an important setting for integration of brief alcohol intervention and alcohol pharmacotherapy to improve patient outcomes. Current practices of alcohol screening, counseling, and prescription of pharmacotherapy by HIV providers are unknown. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional survey of HIV providers from 8 HIV clinical sites across the United States. Surveys queried knowledge and use of alcohol screening, brief advice, counseling and pharmacotherapy, confidence and willingness to prescribe pharmacotherapy and barriers to their use of alcohol pharmacotherapy. We used multivariable logistic regression to examine provider factors associated with confidence and willingness to prescribe pharmacotherapy. RESULTS: Providers (N=158) were predominantly female (58%) and Caucasian (73%); almost half were infectious disease physicians and 31% had been in practice 10-20 years. Most providers (95%) reported always or usually screening for alcohol use, although only 10% reported using a formal screening tool. Over two-thirds never or rarely treated alcohol-dependent patients with pharmacotherapy themselves. Most (71%) referred alcohol-dependent patients for treatment. Knowledge regarding alcohol pharmacotherapy was low. The major barrier to prescribing pharmacotherapy was insufficient training on use of pharmacotherapy. Provider confidence ratings were positively correlated with their practice patterns. CONCLUSIONS: HIV providers reported high rates of screening for alcohol use, though few used a formal screening tool. Most providers referred alcohol dependent patients to outside resources for treatment. Few reported prescribing alcohol pharmacotherapy. Increased training on alcohol pharmacotherapy may increase confidence in prescribing and use of these medications in HIV care settings.

Substance abuse, violence, and HIV/AIDS (SAVA) syndemic effects on viral suppression among HIV positive women of color.

The combined epidemics of substance abuse, violence, and HIV/AIDS, known as the SAVA syndemic, contribute to the disproportionate burden of disease among people of color in the US. To examine the association between HIV viral load suppression and SAVA syndemic variables, we used baseline data from 563 HIV+ women of color treated at nine HIV medical and ancillary care sites participating in HRSA's Special Project of National Significance Women of Color (WOC) Initiative. Just under half the women (n=260) were virally suppressed. Five psychosocial factors contributing to the SAVA syndemic were examined in this study: substance abuse, binge drinking, intimate partner violence, poor mental health, and sexual risk taking. Associations among the psychosocial factors were assessed and clustering confirmed. A SAVA score was created by summing the dichotomous (present/absent) psychosocial measures. Using generalized estimating equation (GEE) models to account for site-level clustering and individual-covariates, a higher SAVA score (0 to 5) was associated with reduced viral suppression; OR (adjusted)=0.81, 95% CI: 0.66, 0.99. The syndemic approach represents a viable framework for understanding viral suppression among HIV positive WOC, and suggests the need for comprehensive interventions that address the social/environmental contexts of patients' lives.

Baseline social characteristics and barriers to care from a special projects of national significance women of color with HIV study: a comparison of urban and rural women and barriers to HIV care.

We describe the baseline sociodemographic characteristics of the Health Resources and Services Administration's Special Programs of National Significance Women of Color (WOC) Initiative. Between November 2010 and July 2013, 921 WOC were prospectively enrolled in HIV medical care at nine sites, six urban (N = 641) and three rural sites (N = 280) across the US. We describe the study sample, drawing comparisons between urban and rural sites on sociodemographics, barriers to HIV care, HIV care status at study entry, substance use and sexual risk factors, and the relationship among these variables. Urban sites' participants differed from rural sites on all sociodemographic variables except age (median = 42.3). Women at urban sites were more likely to be Hispanic, less educated, single, living alone, unstably housed, unemployed, and to have reported lower income. More urban women were transferring care to HIV care or had been lost to care. Urban women reported more barriers to care, many relating to stigma or fatalism about HIV care. Urban women reported more substance use and sexual risk behaviors. A better understanding of how HIV care is embedded in communities or fragmented across many sites in urban areas may help understand barriers to long-term engagement in HIV care encountered by WOC.

Experiences of women of color with a nurse patient navigation program for linkage and engagement in HIV care.

Patient navigation, a patient-centered model of care coordination focused on reducing barriers to care, is an emerging strategy for linking patients to and retaining them in HIV care. The Guide to Healing Program (G2H), implemented at the Infectious Diseases Clinic at UNC Chapel Hill, provided patient navigation to women of color (WOC) new to or re-engaging in HIV care through a 'nurse guide' with mental health training and experience. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively explore patients' experiences working with the nurse guide. Twenty-one semi-structured telephone interviews with G2H participants were conducted. Interviews were transcribed and thematic analysis was utilized to identify patterns and themes in the data. Women's experiences with the nurse guide were overwhelmingly positive. They described the nurse guide teaching them critical information and skills, facilitating access to resources, and conveying authentic kindness and concern. The findings suggest that a properly trained nurse in this role can provide critical medical and psychosocial support in order to eliminate barriers to engagement in HIV care, and successfully facilitate patient HIV self-management. The nurse guide model represents a promising approach to patient navigation for WOC living with HIV.

Health status of HIV-infected women entering care: baseline medical findings from the women of color initiative.

The WOC Initiative is a prospective study of 921 women of color (WOC) entering HIV care at nine (three rural, six urban) sites across the US. A baseline interview was performed that included self-reported limitation(s) in activity, health conditions, and the CDC's health-related quality of life measures (Healthy Days). One-third of the WOC reported limiting an activity because of illness or a health condition and those with an activity limitation reported 13 physically and 14 mentally unhealthy days/month, compared with 5 physically and 9 mentally unhealthy days/month in the absence of an activity limitation. Age was associated with a three- to fourfold increased risk of an activity limitation but only for WOC in the urban sites. Diabetes was associated with a threefold increased risk of a limitation among women at rural sites. Cardiac disease was associated with a six- to sevenfold increased risk of an activity limitation for both urban and rural WOC. HIV+ WOC reported more physically and mentally unhealthy days than the general US female population even without an activity limitation. Prevention and treatment of diabetes and cardiovascular disease will need to be a standard part of HIV care to promote the long-term health and HRQOL for HIV-infected WOC.

When "need plus supply" does not equal demand: challenges in uptake of depression treatment in HIV clinical care.

OBJECTIVE: Depression is common among patients in HIV care and is associated with worse HIV-related health behaviors and outcomes. Effective depression treatment is available, yet depression remains widely underdiagnosed and undertreated in HIV care. METHODS: As part of a multisite, randomized trial of depression treatment in HIV clinical care, the proportion of positive depression screens that resulted in study enrollment and reasons for nonenrollment were examined. RESULTS: Over 33 months, patients completed 9,765 depression screens; 19% were positive for depression, and of these 88% were assessed for study eligibility. Of assessed positive screens, 11% resulted in study enrollment. Nonenrollment after a positive screen was sometimes dictated by the study eligibility criteria, but it was often related to potentially modifiable provider- or patient-level barriers. CONCLUSIONS: Addressing patient- and provider-level barriers to engaging in depression treatment will be critical to maximize the reach of depression treatment services for HIV patients.

The effect of antidepressant treatment on HIV and depression outcomes: results from a randomized trial.

BACKGROUND: Depression is a major barrier to HIV treatment outcomes. OBJECTIVE: To test whether antidepressant management decision support integrated into HIV care improves antiretroviral adherence and depression morbidity. DESIGN: Pseudo-cluster randomized trial. SETTING: Four US infectious diseases clinics. PARTICIPANTS: HIV-infected adults with major depressive disorder. INTERVENTION: Measurement-based care (MBC) - depression care managers used systematic metrics to give HIV primary-care clinicians standardized antidepressant treatment recommendations. MEASUREMENTS: Primary - antiretroviral medication adherence (monthly unannounced telephone-based pill counts for 12 months). Primary time-point - 6 months. Secondary - depressive severity, depression remission, depression-free days, measured quarterly for 12 months. RESULTS: From 2010 to 2013, 149 participants were randomized to intervention and 155 to usual care. Participants were mostly men, Black, non-Hispanic, unemployed, and virally suppressed with high baseline self-reported antiretroviral adherence and depressive severity. Over follow-up, no differences between arms in antiretroviral adherence or other HIV outcomes were apparent. At 6 months, depressive severity was lower among intervention participants than usual care [mean difference -3.7, 95% confidence interval (CI) -5.6, -1.7], probability of depression remission was higher [risk difference 13%, 95% CI 1%, 25%), and suicidal ideation was lower (risk difference -18%, 95% CI -30%, -6%). By 12 months, the arms had comparable mental health outcomes. Intervention arm participants experienced an average of 29 (95% CI: 1-57) more depression-free days over 12 months. CONCLUSION: In the largest trial of its kind among HIV-infected adults, MBC did not improve HIV outcomes, possibly because of high baseline adherence, but achieved clinically significant depression improvements and increased depression-free days. MBC may be an effective, resource-efficient approach to reducing depression morbidity among HIV patients.

Barriers to HIV care for women of color living in the Southeastern US are associated with physical symptoms, social environment, and self-determination.

HIV-infected women of color (WOC) face particular barriers to accessing HIV medical care. To understand the impact of physical symptoms, social support, and self-determination on barriers to care, we interviewed HIV-infected women of color. HIV-infected WOC (N=141), attending an academic infectious disease clinic for HIV care in North Carolina, completed the Barriers to Care scale and were categorized as reporting a history of low (less than four of eleven barriers) or high (five or more) barriers to care. Binomial regression was used to estimate prevalence ratios and risk differences of reported barriers to care and its correlates such as depression, anxiety, illness-severity, psychological abuse, social support, treatment-specific social support, and self-determination (autonomy, relatedness, competency). A lower risk of reporting five or more barriers to care was associated with higher levels of autonomy (PR=0.93, 95% CI: 0.89, 0.96), relatedness (PR=0.92, 95% CI: 0.89, 0.94), competency (PR=0.93, 95% CI: 0.87, 0.98), and social support (PR=0.24, 95% CI: 0.81, 0.81). Depression, illness severity, and psychological abuse were associated with a greater risk of having five or more barriers to care. There are multiple social and psychological factors that contribute to perceived barriers to HIV care among WOC in the southeastern USA. Interventions that promote social support and increase individual self-determination have the potential to improve access to HIV care for WOC.

Barriers and facilitators to testing, treatment entry, and engagement in care by HIV-positive women of color.

Women of color (WOC) are at increased risk of dying from HIV/AIDS, a disparity that may be partially explained by the care barriers they face. Based in a health care disparity model and the socio-ecological framework, the objective of this study was to identify the barriers and facilitators to HIV care at three points along the HIV continuum: HIV testing, entry/early care, and engagement. Two focus groups (n=11 women) and 19 semi-structured interviews were conducted with HIV-positive WOC in an academic medical setting in North Carolina. Content was analyzed and interpreted. We found barriers and facilitators to be present at multiple levels of the ecological framework, including personal-, provider-, clinic-, and community-levels. The barriers reported by women were aligned with the racial health care disparity model constructs and varied by stage of HIV. Identifying the salient barriers and facilitators at multiple ecological levels along the HIV care continuum may inform intervention development.