ABSTRACT
The presence of neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 correlates with protection against infection and severe COVID-19 disease courses. Understanding the dynamics of antibody development against the SARS-CoV-2 virus is important for recommendations on vaccination strategies and on control of the COVID-19 pandemic. This study investigates the dynamics and extent of α-Spike-Ab development by different vaccines manufactured by Johnson & Johnson, AstraZeneca, Pfizer-BioNTech and Moderna. On day 1 after vaccination, we observed a temporal low-grade inflammatory response. α-Spike-Ab titers were reduced after six months of vaccination with mRNA vaccines and increased 14 days after booster vaccinations to a maximum that exceeded titers from mild and critical COVID-19 and Long-COVID patients. Within the group of critical COVID-19 patients, we observed a trend for lower α-Spike-Ab titers in the group of patients who survived COVID-19. This trend accompanied higher numbers of pro-B cells, fewer mature B cells and a higher frequency of T follicular helper cells. Finally, we present data demonstrating that past infection with mild COVID-19 does not lead to long-term increased Ab titers and that even the group of previously infected SARS-CoV-2 patients benefit from a vaccination six months after the infection.
Subject(s)
COVID-19 , SARS-CoV-2 , Humans , Spike Glycoprotein, Coronavirus , Pandemics , Antibodies, Viral , Viral Envelope Proteins/genetics , Antibodies, Neutralizing , VaccinationABSTRACT
Neurologic injury and selective blockage of sensory nerve endings is associated with impaired fracture healing, however, the role of specific neurotransmitters has not been sufficiently investigated. Our aim was to investigate the impact of specific Substance P-receptor blockage on fracture healing, since the neuropeptide Substance P has both neurogenic and osteogenic activity. After intramedullary stabilization, an isolated femur fracture was induced in 72 Sprague-Dawley rats. In the NK1-R group, the neurokinin-1-tachykinin receptor for substance P was blocked by a specific antagonist (SR140333) for the first two weeks after fracture induction. The control group only received vehicle. Gene-expression, histology, micro-computed tomography, and biomechanical tests were performed. NK1-receptor blocking suppressed osteocalcin expression at one week, collagen 1A2 expression at one and two weeks and collagen 2A1 expression at 2 weeks after fracture induction. Biomechanical testing revealed a significant reduction in maximal load to failure in the NK1-R group at 6 weeks (69.78 vs. 155.45 N, p = 0.029) and at 3 months (72.50 vs.176.33 N, p = 0.01) of fracture healing. Blocking the NK1-receptor suppresses gene expression in and reduces biomechanical strength of healing bone. Therefore, we assume a potential therapeutic relevance of Substance P in cases of disturbed fracture healing.