Comparative study of viscoelastic arterial wall models in nonlinear one-dimensional finite element simulations of blood flow.

It is well known that blood vessels exhibit viscoelastic properties, which are modeled in the literature with different mathematical forms and experimental bases. The wide range of existing viscoelastic wall models may produce significantly different blood flow, pressure, and vessel deformation solutions in cardiovascular simulations. In this paper, we present a novel comparative study of two different viscoelastic wall models in nonlinear one-dimensional (1D) simulations of blood flow. The viscoelastic models are from papers by Holenstein et al. in 1980 (model V1) and Valdez-Jasso et al. in 2009 (model V2). The static elastic or zero-frequency responses of both models are chosen to be identical. The nonlinear 1D blood flow equations incorporating wall viscoelasticity are solved using a space-time finite element method and the implementation is verified with the Method of Manufactured Solutions. Simulation results using models V1, V2 and the common static elastic model are compared in three application examples: (i) wave propagation study in an idealized vessel with reflection-free outflow boundary condition; (ii) carotid artery model with nonperiodic boundary conditions; and (iii) subject-specific abdominal aorta model under rest and simulated lower limb exercise conditions. In the wave propagation study the damping and wave speed were largest for model V2 and lowest for the elastic model. In the carotid and abdominal aorta studies the most significant differences between wall models were observed in the hysteresis (pressure-area) loops, which were larger for V2 than V1, indicating that V2 is a more dissipative model. The cross-sectional area oscillations over the cardiac cycle were smaller for the viscoelastic models compared to the elastic model. In the abdominal aorta study, differences between constitutive models were more pronounced under exercise conditions than at rest. Inlet pressure pulse for model V1 was larger than the pulse for V2 and the elastic model in the exercise case. In this paper, we have successfully implemented and verified two viscoelastic wall models in a nonlinear 1D finite element blood flow solver and analyzed differences between these models in various idealized and physiological simulations, including exercise. The computational model of blood flow presented here can be utilized in further studies of the cardiovascular system incorporating viscoelastic wall properties.

Differential modulation of mitogen driven proliferation and homeostasis driven proliferation of T cells by rapamycin, Ly294002 and chlorophyllin.

Homeostasis driven proliferation (HDP) of naïve CD4+ T cells depends upon T cell receptor ligation with self-MHC II along with availability of interleukin-7. But the exact nature of downstream signaling events involved in HDP of helper T cells remains elusive. To identify the specific involvement of signaling molecules in HDP, purified CD4+ T cells were treated with either mTOR inhibitor rapamycin or PI3kinase inhibitor Ly294002 or with an antioxidant chlorophyllin (CHL) in vitro. Rapamycin treated cells failed to proliferate, expressed anergic T cell specific transcription factor genes egr-2 and egr-3 and showed diminished IFN-gamma production in response to Con A stimulation in vitro. Although CHL treated cells also failed to proliferate, they showed a normal IFN-gamma production during primary stimulation and did not upregulate egr-2 and egr-3 genes following restimulation in vitro. Ly294002 treated cells failed to express IL-2 and IFN-gamma and did not divide in response to Con A stimulation in vitro. While all these inhibitors significantly inhibited CD4+ T cell proliferation in response to the mitogen in vitro, only CHL treatment could inhibit their HDP in lymphopenic mice. Our results also demonstrate that combined treatment with rapamycin and Ly294002 did not inhibit HDP of CD4+ T cells. Thus, the present study, for the first time, shows a non-essential role of mTOR and PI3kinase during HDP of CD4+ T cells and also describes its possible regulation by an antioxidant.

Spatial distribution, kinetics, signaling and cytokine production during homeostasis driven proliferation of CD4+ T cells.

During recovery from lymphopenia, the naïve T-cells undergo homeostasis driven proliferation (HDP) and acquire a memory phenotype. The HDP of T-cells requires signals derived from T-cell-receptor, p56lck kinase, IL-7R and IL-15R. However, the role of other signaling molecules during HDP of CD4+ T-cells remains speculative. The differentiation of naïve T-cells into Th1/Th2/Th17 or Treg populations during HDP is not well understood. Present report describes the spatial and signaling characteristics of HDP of CD4+ T-cells and their cytokine profiles. The HDP of CD4+ T-cells was found to occur only in specific areas (T-cell zones) of secondary lymphoid organs of lymphopenic mice. The inhibitors of MEK and PKC and their combination with inhibitors of PI3kinase and mTOR suppressed mitogen induced T-cell proliferation without affecting their HDP. The CD4+ T-cells taken from reconstituted lymphopenic mice showed activation of proteins involved in NF-kappaB pathway, significantly higher production of pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6, and lower production of IL-4 as compared to T-cells from normal mice. Plumbagin, a known NF-kappaB blocker inhibited survival as well as HDP of CD4+ T-cells and IL-6 production in activated T-cells. Our results demonstrate the essential role of NF-kappaB during HDP of T-cells.

Molecular events in the activation of B cells and macrophages by a non-microbial TLR4 agonist, G1-4A from Tinospora cordifolia.

G1-4A, a polysaccharide from an Indian medicinal plant Tinospora cordifolia, was recently shown to protect mice against septic shock by modulating the proinflammatory cytokines. G1-4A also activated B cells polyclonally. The present report describes in detail the molecular events associated with G1-4A-induced immunomodulation in vitro and in vivo. G1-4A treatment led to an increase in the CD69 expression in lymphocytes. G1-4A-induced proliferation of B cells was completely inhibited by PI3K inhibitor Ly294002, mTOR inhibitor rapamycin and NF-kappaB inhibitor plumbagin. Akt, ERK and JNK were activated by G1-4A which finally resulted in the activation of IKK, degradation of IkappaB-alpha and translocation of NF-kappaB to the nucleus. Administration of G1-4A to mice led to splenomegaly and an increase in the numbers of T cells, B cells and macrophages. This increase in spleen cellularity was due to in vivo proliferation of lymphocytes and upregulation of anti-apoptotic genes. Anti-TLR4-MD2 complex antibody inhibited G1-4A-induced B cell proliferation and degradation of IkappaB-alpha suggesting that TLR-4 was a receptor for G1-4A on B cells. Activation of RAW 264.7 macrophages by G1-4A was found to be dependent on ERK and NF-kappaB-mediated signals. The phagocytosis index in peritoneal exudate cells (PEC) isolated from G1-4A treated mice was significantly higher as compared to that in PEC from control mice. G1-4A administration also increased the number of CD11b(+) cells in the PEC without an increase in the total number of PEC. Thus the present understanding of the molecular mechanism of action of G1-4A, a novel non-microbial TLR4 agonist, will pave the way for its application as an immunomodulator and adjuvant.