Maternal early life stress is associated with pro-inflammatory processes during pregnancy.

Early life stress (ELS) is common in the United States and worldwide, and contributes to the development of psychopathology in individuals with these experiences and their offspring. A growing body of research suggests that early life stress may contribute to adverse health partly through modulation of immune (and particularly inflammatory) responses. Therefore, increased maternal prenatal inflammation has been proposed as a mechanistic pathway by which the observed cross-generational effects of parental early life stress on child neuropsychiatric outcomes may be exerted. We examined associations between early life stress and molecular markers of inflammation (specifically pro-inflammatory gene expression and receptor-mediated transcription factor activity) and a commonly studied circulating marker of inflammation (C-Reactive Protein) in a diverse group of women in or near their third trimester of pregnancy, covarying for age, race/ethnicity, BMI, concurrent infection, concurrent perceived stress, and per capita household income. Mothers who experienced higher levels of early life stress had significantly increased pro-inflammatory (NF-κB) and decreased anti-viral (IRF) transcription factor activity. Transcripts that were up or down regulated in mothers with high ELS were preferentially derived from both CD16+ and CD16- monocytes. Early life stress was not associated with elevated CRP. Taken together, these findings provide preliminary evidence for an association between ELS and a pro-inflammatory transcriptional phenotype during pregnancy that may serve as a mechanistic pathway for cross-generational transmission of the effects of early life stress on mental and physical health.

Preconception maternal posttraumatic stress and child negative affectivity: Prospectively evaluating the intergenerational impact of trauma.

The developmental origins of psychopathology begin before birth and perhaps even prior to conception. Understanding the intergenerational transmission of psychopathological risk is critical to identify sensitive windows for prevention and early intervention. Prior research demonstrates that maternal trauma history, typically assessed retrospectively, has adverse consequences for child socioemotional development. However, very few prospective studies of preconception trauma exist, and the role of preconception symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) remains unknown. The current study prospectively evaluates whether maternal preconception PTSD symptoms predict early childhood negative affectivity, a key dimension of temperament and predictor of later psychopathology. One hundred and eighteen women were recruited following a birth and prior to conception of the study child and were followed until the study child was 3-5 years old. Higher maternal PTSD symptoms prior to conception predicted greater child negative affectivity, adjusting for concurrent maternal depressive symptoms and sociodemographic covariates. In exploratory analyses, we found that neither maternal prenatal nor postpartum depressive symptoms or perceived stress mediated this association. These findings add to a limited prospective literature, highlighting the importance of assessing the mental health of women prior to conception and providing interventions that can disrupt the intergenerational sequelae of trauma.

Maternal stress and mental health before pregnancy and offspring diurnal cortisol in early childhood.

The current study investigates whether prepregnancy maternal posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, depressive symptoms, and stress predict children's cortisol diurnal slopes and cortisol awakening responses (CARs) adjusting for relevant variables. Mothers were enrolled after delivering a baby and followed through their subsequent pregnancy with 5 years of longitudinal data on their subsequent child. This prospective design allowed assessment of PTSD symptoms, depressive symptoms, and perceived stress prior to pregnancy. Children provided three saliva samples per day on three consecutive days at two timepoints in early childhood (M age = 3.7 years, SD = 0.38; M age = 5.04 years, SD = 0.43). Mothers' PTSD symptoms prior to pregnancy were significantly associated with flatter child diurnal cortisol slopes at 4 and 5 years, but not with child CAR. Findings at the age of 4 years, but not 5 years, remained statistically significant after adjustment for maternal socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, child age, and other covariates. In contrast, maternal prepregnancy depressive symptoms and perceived stress did not significantly predict cortisol slopes or CAR. Results suggest that maternal prepregnancy PTSD symptoms may contribute to variation in early childhood physiology. This study extends earlier work demonstrating risk of adverse outcomes among children whose mothers experienced trauma but associations cannot be disentangled from effects of prenatal mental health of mothers on children's early childhood.

Randomized Manipulation of Early Cognitive Experience Impacts Adult Brain Structure.

Does early exposure to cognitive and linguistic stimulation impact brain structure? Or do genetic predispositions account for the co-occurrence of certain neuroanatomical phenotypes and a tendency to engage children in cognitively stimulating activities? Low socioeconomic status infants were randomized to either 5 years of cognitively and linguistically stimulating center-based care or a comparison condition. The intervention resulted in large and statistically significant changes in brain structure measured in midlife, particularly for male individuals. These findings are the first to extend the large literature on cognitive enrichment effects on animal brains to humans, and to demonstrate the effects of uniquely human features such as linguistic stimulation.

Prenatal maternal C-reactive protein prospectively predicts child executive functioning at ages 4-6 years.

This prospective longitudinal study evaluated multiple maternal biomarkers from the preconception and prenatal periods as time-sensitive predictors of child executive functioning (EF) in 100 mother-child dyads. Maternal glycated hemoglobin (HbA1C ), C-reactive protein (CRP), and blood pressure (BP) were assayed before pregnancy and during the second and third trimesters. Subsequently, children were followed from birth and assessed for EF (i.e. cognitive flexibility, response inhibition) at ages 4-6 years. Perinatal data were also extracted from neonatal records. Higher maternal CRP, but not maternal HbA1C or BP, uniquely predicted poorer child cognitive flexibility, even with control of maternal HbA1C and BP, relevant demographic factors, and multiple prenatal/perinatal covariates (i.e. preconception maternal body mass index, maternal depression, maternal age at birth, child birth weight, child birth order, child gestational age, and child birth/neonatal complications). Predictions from maternal CRP were specific to the third trimester, and third trimester maternal CRP robustly predicted child cognitive flexibility independently of preconception and second trimester CRP. Child response inhibition was unrelated to maternal biomarkers from all time points. These findings provide novel, prospective evidence that maternal inflammation uniquely predicts child cognitive flexibility deficits, and that these associations depend on the timing of exposure before or during pregnancy.

A common data language for clinical research studies: the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke and American Academy for Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine Cerebral Palsy Common Data Elements Version 1.0 recommendations.

To increase the efficiency and effectiveness of clinical research studies, cerebral palsy (CP) specific Common Data Elements (CDEs) were developed through a partnership between the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) and the American Academy of Cerebral Palsy and Developmental Medicine (AACPDM). International experts reviewed existing NINDS CDEs and tools used in studies of children and young people with CP. CDEs were compiled, subjected to internal review, and posted online for external public comment in September 2016. Guided by the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health framework, CDEs were categorized into six domains: (1) participant characteristics; (2) health, growth, and genetics; (3) neuroimaging; (4) neuromotor skills and functional assessments; (5) neurocognitive, social, and emotional assessments; and (6) engagement and quality of life. Version 1.0 of the NINDS/AACPDM CDEs for CP is publicly available on the NINDS CDE and AACPDM websites. Global use of CDEs for CP will standardize data collection, improve data quality, and facilitate comparisons across studies. Ongoing collaboration with international colleagues, industry, and people with CP and their families will provide meaningful feedback and updates as additional evidence is obtained. These CDEs are recommended for NINDS-funded research for CP. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: This is the first comprehensive Common Data Elements (CDEs) for children and young people with CP for clinical research. The CDEs for children and young people with CP include common definitions, the standardization of case report forms, and measures. The CDE guides the standardization for data collection and outcome evaluation in all types of studies with children and young people with CP. The CDE ultimately improves data quality and data sharing.

Psychosocial and demographic predictors of postpartum physical activity.

Physical activity promotes better health outcomes across the lifespan, and provides physical and mental health benefits for women who have recently given birth. However, research has not adequately characterized physical activity levels or risk factors for inadequate physical activity during the postpartum period. The objective of the present study was to describe levels and correlates of physical activity at 6 months postpartum in mothers of diverse race/ethnicity (55% African American, 23% White, 22% Hispanic/Latina), with the majority living in or near poverty. We analyzed data collected by the five-site Community Child Health Network study. Women (n = 1581) were recruited shortly after the birth of a child. Multinomial logistic regression models tested associations of demographic factors and self-reported stress in several life domains with total physical activity levels at 6-9 months postpartum, including activities done at work, at home, for transportation, and leisure. Thirty-five percent of participants in this sample reported low levels of physical activity. African American race, Latina ethnicity, and living in a rural area were associated with low levels of physical activity, whereas working outside the home was associated with high physical activity. Contrary to hypotheses, chronic stress was not associated with physical activity with the exception of financial stress, which predicted greater likelihood of being highly physically active. These findings suggest that optimal postpartum care should integrate physical activity promotion, and that African American, Latina, and rural-dwelling women may benefit most from efforts to promote activity following birth.

Sleep Quality Predicts Persistence of Parental Postpartum Depressive Symptoms and Transmission of Depressive Symptoms from Mothers to Fathers.

BACKGROUND: Early parenthood is a time of chronic sleep disturbance and also of heightened depression risk. Poor sleep quality has been identified both as a predictor of postpartum depressive symptoms and as a consequence. PURPOSE: This study sought to clarify causal pathways linking sleep and postpartum depression via longitudinal path modeling. Sleep quality at 6 months postpartum was hypothesized to exacerbate depressive symptoms from 1 month through 1 year postpartum in both mothers and fathers. Within-couple associations between sleep and depression were also tested. METHODS: Data were drawn from a low-income, racially and ethnically diverse sample of 711 couples recruited after the birth of a child. Depressive symptoms were assessed at 1, 6, and 12 months postpartum, and sleep was assessed at 6 months postpartum. RESULTS: For both partnered mothers and fathers and for single mothers, depressive symptoms at 1 month postpartum predicted sleep quality at 6 months, which in turn predicted depressive symptoms at both 6 and 12 months. Results held when infant birth weight, breastfeeding status, and parents' race/ethnicity, poverty, education, and immigration status were controlled. Mothers' and fathers' sleep quality and depressive symptoms were correlated, and maternal sleep quality predicted paternal depressive symptoms both at 6 and at 12 months. CONCLUSIONS: Postpartum sleep difficulties may contribute to a vicious cycle between sleep and the persistence of depression after the birth of a child. Sleep problems may also contribute to the transmission of depression within a couple. Psychoeducation and behavioral treatments to improve sleep may benefit new parents.

Childhood family stress modifies the association between perinatal stressful life events and depressive symptoms.

The childhood family environment can influence long-term well-being in part by modifying how individuals' respond to and cope with stress across the life span. Theoretical models propose that childhood stress will either exacerbate (stress sensitization) or attenuate (steeling effect) the effects of adult stress on mental health. This study tests whether childhood family stress modifies the association between stressful life events and depressive symptoms in pregnancy and consecutive postpartum periods. A sample of 127 women reported on depressive symptoms after one birth, during a subsequent pregnancy, and postpartum following that birth. Childhood family stress was assessed with the Risky Families Questionnaire. Stressful life events were measured at all three timepoints to capture the number of life events during both pregnancies and between pregnancies. Associations between stressful life events and depressive symptoms varied as a function of childhood family stress. At the between-persons level, more stressful life events were associated with greater depressive symptoms among women who reported infrequent exposure to childhood family stress in this sample, but not among women who reported more frequent exposure to childhood family stress. Results provide novel evidence that moderate exposure to childhood family stress may attenuate the association between stressful life events and depressive symptoms in the perinatal period, consistent with a steeling effect. That is, some degree of childhood family stress may promote resilience to perinatal stress. Findings underscore the utility of examining the interaction of risk factors across the life span in predicting perinatal mental health. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Maternal depressive symptom trajectories from preconception through postpartum: Associations with offspring developmental outcomes in early childhood.

BACKGROUND: Two theoretical frameworks, the cumulative stress and match-mismatch model, propose that patterns of maternal depressive symptoms over early periods of offspring development predict outcomes in opposing ways. Studies have yet to test these theories across the preconception, prenatal, and early postnatal period. Study 1 identified trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms from preconception to postpartum. Study 2 examined associations of these trajectories with offspring developmental outcomes in early childhood. METHODS: In Study 1, women (n = 362) enrolled in a longitudinal study were assessed prior to conception and through a subsequent pregnancy and postpartum. In Study 2, a subsample of 125 mother-child pairs completed home visits in early childhood. Mothers reported on child temperament at age 4. Children completed assessments of executive function at age 5. RESULTS: Four trajectories of maternal depressive symptoms were identified: low-stable, increasing, decreasing, persistent. In controlled analyses, children of women with decreasing symptoms were lower in maternal ratings of effortful control at age four (ß = -0.24, p = .003). Children of women with increasing symptoms scored lower on an inhibitory control task at age five (ß = -0.35, p = .001). CONCLUSIONS: Changes in maternal depressive symptoms, but not stable symptoms, were associated with lower maternal ratings of effortful control and poorer performance on an inhibitory control task. Results are consistent with the match-mismatch model. Assessment of preconception depressive symptoms in women and changes in symptoms may be beneficial for early intervention for women and children.

Pregnancy anxiety in expectant mothers predicts offspring negative affect: The moderating role of acculturation.

BACKGROUND: Pregnancy anxiety predicts adverse developmental outcomes in offspring from infancy through late childhood, but studies have not examined associations with outcomes in early childhood, nor clarified ethnic or cultural variations in these processes. AIMS: (1) To examine differences in pregnancy anxiety and related concerns between non-Hispanic White women, Latina women who prefer to speak in English, and Latinas who prefer Spanish; (2) To test prospective associations between pregnancy anxiety and child negative affect and moderation by ethnicity and language preference, used as a proxy for acculturation. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: This longitudinal study included 95 women (40 Non-Hispanic Whites, 31 Spanish-preference Latinas, and 24 English-preference Latinas). Language preference was provided at study entry. Pregnancy anxiety was assessed in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy with two standardized measures. Mothers reported child negative affect at age 4. RESULTS: Spanish-preference Latinas had significantly more pregnancy-related anxiety about their health and safety in childbirth and concerning the medical system compared to English-preference Latinas and non-Hispanic White women. Adjusting for covariates, pregnancy anxiety in the second trimester, though not the third trimester, predicted significantly higher child negative affect in the full sample. A significant moderation effect indicated that the association was strongest among the lower acculturated Latinas, i.e., those who preferred Spanish. CONCLUSION: These results document higher risk for offspring associated with pregnancy anxiety in the second trimester especially among less acculturated Latina women, and suggest the need for culturally-sensitive screening tools and interventions to improve outcomes for Latina mothers and their children.

Access to Autism Spectrum Disorder Services for Rural Appalachian Citizens.

Background: Low-resource rural communities face significant challenges regarding availability and adequacy of evidence-based services. Purposes: With respect to accessing evidence-based services for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), this brief report summarizes needs of rural citizens in the South-Central Appalachian region, an area notable for persistent health disparities. Methods: A mixed-methods approach was used to collect quantitative and qualitative data during focus groups with 33 service providers and 15 caregivers of children with ASD in rural southwest Virginia. Results: Results supported the barriers of availability and affordability of ASD services in this region, especially relating to the need for more ASD-trained providers, better coordination and navigation of services, and addition of programs to assist with family financial and emotional stressors. Results also suggested cultural attitudes related to autonomy and trust towards outside professionals that may prevent families from engaging in treatment. Implications: Relevant policy recommendations are discussed related to provider incentives, insurance coverage, and telehealth. Integration of autism services into already existing systems and multicultural sensitivity of providers are also implicated.

Prenatal maternal stress and child hair cortisol four years later: Evidence from a low-income sample.

BACKGROUND: Maternal stress during pregnancy can influence the trajectory of fetal development, shaping offspring physiology and health in enduring ways. Some research implicates fetal programming of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis as a mediator of these effects. The present study is the first to examine child hair cortisol concentration (HCC) and maternal stress during pregnancy in a diverse, low-income sample. METHODS: The sample consisted of 77 healthy, low-income (M annual income: $13,321), mother-children pairs (M child age = 3.81 years, SD = 0.43). The children were 57 % girls, 43 % boys. Mothers were 65 % Latina/Hispanic, 28 % Non-Hispanic White, 7% Black/African American. Maternal prenatal stress was measured with the Perceived Stress Scale administered by interview in the second and third trimesters, and again approximately four years later when child hair samples for assaying HCC were collected. RESULTS: On average maternal perceived stress increased significantly across pregnancy, then returned to lower levels 4 years after birth. Regression analysis revealed that child HCC was not significantly predicted by maternal perceived stress at either single prenatal time point. Exploratory analysis revealed evidence of a relation between increases in maternal prenatal stress from second to third trimester and child HCC four years later (r = .37, p =  .04). CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that measures of prenatal maternal stress at any one time point may not be predictive of offspring long-term HPA output in low-income child samples, but that increases in stress levels across pregnancy may provide important information undetected by individual time point measures.

Cell phones and the measurement of child neglect: the validity of the parent-child activities interview.

Two multisite studies were conducted to assess the feasibility of using cell phone interviews (the Parent-Child Activities Interview) to learn more about the quality of daily parenting among high-risk mothers, including child neglect. In Study 1, 45 primiparous teenage mothers with 3- to 9-month-old infants were recruited and randomly assigned to two groups: one received frequent cell phone interviews and the other group less frequent interviews over their home telephone. Relationships among paper-and-pencil surveys of parenting (gathered in person) and a Parenting Essentials score (coded from the phone interviews) were significantly correlated. In Study 2, adolescent and adult mothers and their first-born children ( n = 544) completed 2 observations of parenting in their home as well as a series of 3 PCA calls at ages 4 and 8 months. Parenting Essentials coded from the interviews were significantly related to observed measures of parenting at both time points. The Parent-Child Activities Interview shows promise as a reliable and valid measure of parenting, capturing frequent and detailed information about daily parenting practices. Cell phones may prove useful in intervening with mothers at risk of suboptimal parenting and child neglect.

Practice-based evidence from a clinical cohort that received pediatric constraint- induced movement therapy.

PURPOSE: Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy (CIMT) is now designated a highly efficacious treatment for children with cerebral palsy, based on rigorous clinical trials. Yet virtually no evidence confirms that these moderate to large size effects can be replicated in clinical practice for a more heterogeneous clinical population. Thus there is a need to collect and report treatment outcome data based on actual clinical practice as a critical next step for implementation. METHODS: This study presents results from a prospective study conducted on a clinical cohort of 88 children, 18 months to 12 years old (M = 55 months, SD = 5 months), who received high-intensity CIMT known as ACQUIREc. The children varied in severity and etiology of their hemiparesis and a subset was diagnosed with asymmetric quadriparesis. RESULTS: Pre- to post-CIMT assessments confirmed highly significant and clinically meaningful changes based on both parental report (Pediatric Motor Activity Log, p< 0.0001) and standardized measures (The Assisting Hand Assessment, p= 0.04). CONCLUSIONS: Clinical practice of high-intensity CIMT (120 hours in 4 weeks) with full-time casting of the less-impaired upper extremity produced benefits of comparable magnitude to those from rigorous randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Therapists were highly trained and actively monitored. Children across a wide range of etiologies and severity levels realized positive outcomes.

Intensive pediatric constraint-induced therapy for children with cerebral palsy: randomized, controlled, crossover trial.

A randomized crossover trial of a new form of pediatric rehabilitation was conducted with 18 children with hemiparesis. Half were randomly assigned to receive pediatric constraint-induced therapy involving constraint of the functional upper extremity and intensive therapy with the hemiparetic upper extremity. Controls received conventional physical and occupational therapy and then were crossed over to receive pediatric constraint-induced therapy. Pediatric constraint-induced therapy produced significantly greater gains than conventional rehabilitation services.

Racial and Ethnic Differences in Breastfeeding.

OBJECTIVES: Breastfeeding rates differ among racial/ethnic groups in the United States. Our aim was to test whether racial/ethnic disparities in demographic characteristics, hospital use of infant formula, and family history of breastfeeding mediated racial/ethnic gaps in breastfeeding outcomes. METHODS: We analyzed data from the Community and Child Health Network study (N = 1636). Breastfeeding initiation, postnatal intent to breastfeed, and breastfeeding duration were assessed postpartum. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to estimate relative odds of breastfeeding initiation, postnatal intent, and duration among racial/ethnic groups and to test the candidate mediators of maternal age, income, household composition, employment, marital status, postpartum depression, preterm birth, smoking, belief that "breast is best," family history of breastfeeding, in-hospital formula introduction, and WIC participation. RESULTS: Spanish-speaking Hispanic mothers were most likely to initiate (91%), intend (92%), and maintain (mean duration, 17.1 weeks) breastfeeding, followed by English-speaking Hispanic mothers (initiation 90%, intent 88%; mean duration, 10.4 weeks) and white mothers (initiation 78%, intent 77%; mean duration, 16.5 weeks); black mothers were least likely to initiate (61%), intend (57%), and maintain breastfeeding (mean duration, 6.4 weeks). Demographic variables fully mediated disparities between black and white mothers in intent and initiation, whereas demographic characteristics and in-hospital formula feeding fully mediated breastfeeding duration. Family breastfeeding history and demographic characteristics helped explain the higher breastfeeding rates of Hispanic mothers relative to white and black mothers. CONCLUSIONS: Hospitals and policy makers should limit in-hospital formula feeding and consider family history of breastfeeding and demographic characteristics to reduce racial/ethnic breastfeeding disparities.

Injury risk among children of low-income U.S.-born and immigrant mothers.

The number of immigrants in the United States is at an all time high, yet psychologists have largely ignored the domain of immigrant health. This article considers 1 aspect of immigrant health, risk for pediatric injury. A sample of over 5,000 5-year-old children from impoverished families was studied; approximately 13% had immigrant mothers. Children of immigrants had a significantly lower rate of injury in the prior year. This was particularly true of non-White children of immigrants. Three possible mediators for this finding--assistance with parenting, parenting style, and health care accessibility--were considered, but none explained the difference. The need for further research on the topic and implications of results for injury prevention are discussed.

An educational intervention improves developmental progress of young children in a Romanian orphanage.

From 1991 to 1994, a group of Romanian and American colleagues undertook an experimental and humanitarian effort to try to improve the quality of life, mental health, and developmental progress of young children in a Romanian orphanage. In the context of institutional care, we experimentally introduced stable adult-child relationships, small group size, and a protocol of enriched caregiving and educational activities. These procedures were adapted from an intervention in childcare centers in the United States that had been proven effective in reducing intellectual decline in at-risk children. Developmental scores for orphanage children were derived from the Denver II (a revision of the Denver Developmental Screening Test; Frankenburg & Dodds, 1990), which was translated into Romanian and administered as a pre- and posttest to the experimental subjects and comparison groups in the same institution. Mixed models combining both within- and between-subject heterogeneous variance-covariance structures were utilized to analyze the impacts of time, intervention/control group assignment, child sex, child age, and interaction of Group × Time on the developmental scores. For the developmental outcome variables, the effects of group assignment (experimental vs. comparison) were highly significant. There also was a Group × Time interaction effect. We conclude that an educational intervention which includes the addition of resources and training can be initiated and sustained in an orphanage for young children as a way of improving institutional care. ©2005 Michigan Association for Infant Mental Health.