Investigation of metal interactions with YrpE protein of Bacillus subtilis by a polyhistidine peptide model.

The use of model peptides that can simulate the behaviour of a protein domain is a very successful analytical method to study the metal coordination sites in biological systems. Here we study zinc and copper binding ability of the sequence HTHEHSHDHSHAH, which serves as model for the metal interactions with YrpE, a putative metal-binding protein of the ZinT family identified in Bacillus subtilis. Compared to other ZinT proteins secreted by Gram-negative bacteria, the metal-coordination properties of YrpE N-terminal histidine-rich domain have not been yet characterized. Different independent analytical methods, aimed at providing information on the stability and structure of the formed species, have been employed, including potentiometric titrations, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, UV-Vis spectrophotometry, circular dichroism and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. The obtained speciation models and equilibrium constants allowed to compare the metal-binding ability of the investigated polyhistidine sequence with that of other well-known histidine-rich peptides. Our thermodynamic results revealed that the YrpE domain HTHEHSHDHSHAH forms more stable metal complexes than other His-rich domains of similar ZinT proteins. Moreover, the studied peptide, containing the alternated (-XH-)n motif, proved to be even more effective than the His6-tag (widely used in immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography) in binding zinc ions.

Lights and Shadows on the Therapeutic Use of Antimicrobial Peptides.

The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant infections is still a major concern for public health worldwide. The number of pathogenic microorganisms capable of resisting common therapeutic treatments are constantly increasing, highlighting the need of innovative and more effective drugs. This phenomenon is strictly connected to the rapid metabolism of microorganisms: due to the huge number of mutations that can occur in a relatively short time, a colony can "adapt" to the pharmacological treatment with the evolution of new resistant species. However, the shortage of available antimicrobial drugs in clinical use is also caused by the high costs involved in developing and marketing new drugs without an adequate guarantee of an economic return; therefore, the pharmaceutical companies have reduced their investments in this area. The use of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) represents a promising strategy for the design of new therapeutic agents. AMPs act as immune defense mediators of the host organism and show a poor ability to induce antimicrobial resistance, coupled with other advantages such as a broad spectrum of activity, not excessive synthetic costs and low toxicity of both the peptide itself and its own metabolites. It is also important to underline that many antimicrobial peptides, due to their inclination to attack cell membranes, have additional biological activities, such as, for example, as anti-cancer drugs. Unfortunately, they usually undergo rapid degradation by proteolytic enzymes and are characterized by poor bioavailability, preventing their extensive clinical use and landing on the pharmaceutical market. This review is focused on the strength and weak points of antimicrobial peptides as therapeutic agents. We give an overview on the AMPs already employed in clinical practice, which are examples of successful strategies aimed at overcoming the main drawbacks of peptide-based drugs. The review deepens the most promising strategies to design modified antimicrobial peptides with higher proteolytic stability with the purpose of giving a comprehensive summary of the commonly employed approaches to evaluate and optimize the peptide potentialities.

Thermodynamic Stability and Speciation of Ga(III) and Zr(IV) Complexes with High-Denticity Hydroxamate Chelators.

Increasing attention has been recently devoted to 89Zr(IV) and 68Ga(III) radionuclides, due to their favorable decay characteristics for positron emission tomography (PET). In the present paper, a deep investigation is presented on Ga(III) and Zr(IV) complexes with a series of tri-(H3L1, H3L3, H3L4 and desferrioxamine E, DFOE) and tetrahydroxamate (H4L2) ligands. Herein, we describe the rational design and synthesis of two cyclic complexing agents (H3L1 and H4L2) bearing three and four hydroxamate chelating groups, respectively. The ligand structures allow us to take advantage of the macrocyclic effect; the H4L2 chelator contains an additional side amino group available for a possible further conjugation with a biomolecule. The thermodynamic stability of Ga(III) and Zr(IV) complexes in solution has been measured using a combination of potentiometric and pH-dependent UV-vis titrations, on the basis of metal-metal competition. The Zr(IV)-H4L2 complex is characterized by one of the highest formation constants reported to date for a tetrahydroxamate zirconium chelate (log ß = 45.9, pZr = 37.0), although the complex-stability increase derived from the introduction of the fourth hydroxamate binding unit is lower than that predicted by theoretical calculations. Solution studies on Ga(III) complexes revealed that H3L1 and H4L2 are stronger chelators in comparison to DFOB. The complex stability obtained with the new ligands is also compared with that previously reported for other hydroxamate ligands. In addition to increasing the library of the thermodynamic stability data of Ga(III) and Zr(IV) complexes, the present work allows new insights into Ga(III) and Zr(IV) coordination chemistry and thermodynamics and broadens the selection of available chelators for 68Ga(III) and 89Zr(IV).

Deferoxamine B: A Natural, Excellent and Versatile Metal Chelator.

Deferoxamine B is an outstanding molecule which has been widely studied in the past decade for its ability to bind iron and many other metal ions. The versatility of this metal chelator makes it suitable for a number of medicinal and analytical applications, from the well-known iron chelation therapy to the most recent use in sensor devices. The three bidentate hydroxamic functional groups of deferoxamine B are the centerpiece of its metal binding ability, which allows the formation of stable complexes with many transition, lanthanoid and actinoid metal ions. In addition to the ferric ion, in fact, more than 20 different metal complexes of deferoxamine b have been characterized in terms of their chemical speciation in solution. In addition, the availability of a terminal amino group, most often not involved in complexation, opens the way to deferoxamine B modification and functionalization. This review aims to collect and summarize the available data concerning the complex-formation equilibria in solutions of deferoxamine B with different metal ions. A general overview of the progress of its applications over the past decade is also discussed, including the treatment of iron overload-associated diseases, its clinical use against cancer and neurodegenerative disorders and its role as a diagnostic tool.

Binding and Reactivity of Copper to R1 and R3 Fragments of tau Protein.

Tau protein is present in significant amounts in neurons, where it contributes to the stabilization of microtubules. Insoluble neurofibrillary tangles of tau are associated with several neurological disorders known as tauopathies, among which is Alzheimer's disease. In neurons, tau binds tubulin through its microtubule binding domain which comprises four imperfect repeats (R1-R4). The histidine residues contained in these fragments are potential binding sites for metal ions and are located close to the regions that drive the formation of amyloid aggregates of tau. In this study, we present a detailed characterization through potentiometric and spectroscopic methods of the binding of copper in both oxidation states to R1 and R3 peptides, which contain one and two histidine residues, respectively. We also evaluate how the redox cycling of copper bound to tau peptides can mediate oxidation that can potentially target exogenous substrates such as neuronal catecholamines. The resulting quinone oxidation products undergo oligomerization and can competitively give post-translational peptide modifications yielding catechol adducts at amino acid residues. The presence of His-His tandem in the R3 peptide strongly influences both the binding of copper and the reactivity of the resulting copper complex. In particular, the presence of the two adjacent histidines makes the copper(I) binding to R3 much stronger than in R1. The copper-R3 complex is also much more active than the copper-R1 complex in promoting oxidative reactions, indicating that the two neighboring histidines activate copper as a catalyst in molecular oxygen activation reactions.

Direct chiral resolution of underivatized amino acids on a stationary phase dynamically modified with the ion-exchanger N(τ) -decyl-L-spinacine.

Increasing attention has been devoted in the last decades to chiral chromatography, principally to high-performance liquid chromatography techniques using a chiral stationary phase. Many chiral high-performance liquid chromatography columns are commercially available, but, unfortunately, they are most often rather expensive. A cheap alternative to the commercial chiral columns is the dynamic-coating procedure of a standard achiral stationary phase with a chiral selector containing both a chiral domain and a chain or a group able to tightly (but noncovalently) bind the achiral support. This is the case of N(τ) -decyl-l-spinacine, already successfully employed to dynamically cover a reversed-phase column to separate racemic mixtures of amino acids through the ligand-exchange mechanism. In the present work, the same chiral selector is employed to separate racemic mixtures of amino acids and oligopeptides, in the absence of metal ions: no coordination complex is formed, but only electrostatic and weak nonbonding interactions between the chiral phase and the analytes are responsible for the observed enantioselectivity. The new method is simpler than the previous one, very effective in the case of aromatic amino acids and oligopeptides and also suitable for preparative purposes.

Chiral ligand-exchange resolution of underivatized amino acids on a dynamically modified stationary phase for RP-HPTLC.

The synthesis of Spi(τ-dec), derived from the selective alkylation of L-spinacine (4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-imidazo[4,5-c]pyridine-6-carboxylic acid) at the τ-nitrogen of its heteroaromatic ring, with a linear hydrocarbon chain of 10 carbon atoms, is described here for the first time. Spi(τ-dec) was successfully employed in the past to prepare home-made chiral columns for chiral ligand-exchange high-performance liquid chromatography. In the present article a new method is described, using Spi(τ-dec) as a chiral selector in high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC): commercial hydrophobic plates were first coated with Spi(τ-dec) and then treated with copper sulfate. The performance of this new chiral stationary phase was tested against racemic mixtures of aromatic amino acids, after appropriate optimization of both the conditions of preparation of the plates and the mobile phase composition. The enantioselectivity values obtained for the studied compounds were higher than those reported in the literature for similar systems. The method employed here for the preparation of chiral HPTLC plates proved practical, efficient, and inexpensive.

Metal coordination governs the antimicrobial efficacy of calcitermin derivatives.

Antimicrobial peptides are promising alternatives to classical antibiotics. Their microbicidal activity can arise from different mechanisms, one of which is known as nutritional immunity and has metal micronutrients and metal-binding biomolecules as its main players. Calcitermin is an antimicrobial peptide and an effective metal chelator. Its properties as an antibacterial and anti-Candida agent have been recently studied both as a free peptide and in the presence of zinc and copper ions, with which it forms stable complexes. Calcitermin derivatives have also gained attention thanks to the possibility of improving their properties, like metal-binding affinity and/or stability in biological fluids, through ad hoc modifications of the native peptide sequence. In this work, the Ala-to-Ser substitutions close to the coordination site of calcitermin have been introduced to study the impact on the biological activity and metal-binding properties. Our results show that metal coordination has a clear impact on the bioactivity of the studied compounds, to the point that the truncated fragment of calcitermin, solely containing the main metal-binding residues, also shows antimicrobial activity.

Polyimidazole ligands: Copper(II) complexes and antiproliferative activity in cancer cells.

The design of novel chelators for therapeutic applications has been the subject of extensive research to address various diseases. Many chelators can manipulate the levels of metal ions within cells and effectively modulate the metal excess. In some cases, chelators show significant toxicity to cells. We investigated polyimidazole ligands by potentiometry and UV-Vis spectroscopy for their ability to form copper(II) complexes. We also compared the antiproliferative activity of the polyimidazole ligands and their copper(II) complexes with polypyridine ligands in CaCo-2 (colorectal adenocarcinoma), SH-SY5Y (neuroblastoma) and K562 (chronic myelogenous leukemia) cells and normal HaCaT (keratinocyte) cells. Polyimidazole ligands are less cytotoxic than their analogous polypyridine ligands. All polyimidazole ligands, except the tetraimidazole ligand for K562 cells, did not show any significant effect on the viability of cancer and normal cells. In contrast, the cytotoxic activity of polypiridine ligands was also observed in normal cells with IC50 values similar to those of cancer cells. Tetraimidazole ligand, the only ligand active on the leukemic K562 cell line, induced caspase-dependent apoptosis and increased intracellular reactive oxygen species production with mitochondrial damage. The low cytotoxicity of the polyimidazole ligands, even if it limits their use as anticancer agents, could make them useful in other medical applications, such as in the treatment of metal overload, microbial infections, inflammation or neurodegenerative disorders.

Bifunctional octadentate pseudopeptides as Zirconium-89 chelators for immuno-PET applications.

BACKGROUND: Positron emission tomography (PET) is a highly sensitive method that provides fine resolution images, useful in the field of clinical diagnostics. In this context, Zirconium-89 (89Zr)-based imaging agents have represented a great challenge in molecular imaging with immuno-PET, which employs antibodies (mAbs) as biological vectors. Indeed, immuno-PET requires radionuclides that can be attached to the mAb to provide stable in vivo conjugates, and for this purpose, the radioactive element should have a decay half-life compatible with the time needed for the biodistribution of the immunoglobulin. In this regard, 89Zr is an ideal radioisotope for immuno-PET because its half-life perfectly matches the in vivo pharmacokinetics of mAbs. RESULTS: The main objective of this work was the design and synthesis of a series of bifunctional octadentate pseudopeptides able to generate stable 89Zr complexes. To achieve this, here we investigated hydroxamate, N-methylhydroxamate and catecholate chelating moieties in complexing radioactive zirconium. N-methylhydroxamate proved to be the most effective 89Zr-chelating group. Furthermore, the increased flexibility and hydrophilicity obtained by using polyoxyethylene groups spacing the hydroxamate units led to chelators capable of rapidly forming (15 min) stable and water-soluble complexes with 89Zr under mild reaction conditions (aqueous environment, room temperature, and physiological pH) that are mandatory for complexation reactions involving biomolecules. Additionally, we report challenge experiments with the competitor ligand EDTA and metal ions such as Fe3+, Zn2+ and Cu2+. In all examined conditions, the chelators demonstrated stability against transmetallation. Finally, a maleimide moiety was introduced to apply one of the most promising ligands in bioconjugation reactions through Thiol-Michael chemistry. CONCLUSION: Combining solid phase and solution synthesis techniques, we identified novel 89Zr-chelating molecules with a peptide scaffold. The adopted chemical design allowed modulation of molecular flexibility, hydrophilicity, as well as the decoration with different zirconium chelating groups. Best results in terms of 89Zr-chelating properties were achieved with the N-methyl hydroxamate moiety. The Zirconium complexes obtained with the most effective compounds were water-soluble, stable to transmetallation, and resistant to peptidases for at least 6 days. Further studies are needed to assess the potential of this novel class of molecules as Zirconium-chelating agents for in vivo applications.

Exploiting thermodynamic data to optimize the enantioseparation of underivatized amino acids in ligand exchange capillary electrophoresis.

Stereoselective amino acid analysis has increasingly moved into the scope of interest of the scientific community. In this work, we report a study on the chiral separation of underivatized D,L-His by ligand exchange capillary electrophoresis (LECE), utilizing accurate ex ante calculations. This has been obtained by the addition to the background electrolytes (BGE) of NaClO(4) which renders the separations "all in solution processes", allowing to accurately calculate in advance the concentrations of the species present in solution and to optimize the system performances. To this aim, the formation of ternary complexes of Cu(2+) ion and L-lysine (L-Lys) or L-ornithine (L-Orn) with L- and D-histidine (His), and histamine (Hm) have been studied by potentiometry and calorimetry at 25 °C and with 0.1 mol dm(-3) (KNO(3)) in aqueous solution. The ternary species [Cu(L)(L-His)H](+) and [Cu(L)(D-His)H](+) (where L = L-Lys or L-Orn) show a slight but still detectable stereoselectivity, and the determination of ΔH° and ΔS° values allowed the understanding of the factors which determine this phenomenon. The stereoselectivity showed by the protonated ternary species has been exploited to chirally separate D,L-His in LECE, by using the binary complexes of copper(II) with L-Lys or L-Orn as background electrolytes added with the appropriate amounts of NaClO(4).

Different approaches to the study of chelating agents for iron and aluminium overload pathologies.

Our objective is to illustrate the activity of the groups operating in Italy involved in identification and study of new chelating agents, mainly intended for treatment of human pathology correlated with metal overload. The objective of "chelation therapy" is removal of toxic metal ions from the human body or attenuation of their toxicity by transforming them into less toxic compounds or by dislocating them from the site at which they exert a toxic action. Because most of this research activity is related to chelating agents for iron and aluminium, diseases related to these two metal ions are briefly treated. Iron overload is the most common metal toxicity disease worldwide. The toxicity of aluminium in dialysis patients was a serious problem for haemodialysis units in the seventies and eighties of the last century. In particular, this review focuses on research performed by the group at Cagliari and Ferrara, and by that at Padova. The former is studying, above all, bisphosphonate and kojic acid derivatives, and the latter is investigating 3,4-hydroxypyridinecarboxylic acids with differently substituted pyridinic rings.

Metal-protein solution interactions investigated using model systems: Thermodynamic and spectroscopic methods.

The first-row D-block metal ions are essential for the physiology of living organisms, functioning as cofactors in metalloproteins or structural components for enzymes: almost half of all proteins require metals to perform the biological function. Understanding metal-protein interactions is crucial to unravel the mysteries behind molecular biology, understanding the effects of metal imbalance and toxicity or the diseases due to disorders in metal homeostasis. Metal-protein interactions are dynamic: they are noncovalent and affected by the environment to which the system is exposed. To reach a complete comprehension of the system, different conditions must be considered for the experimental investigation, in order to get information on the species distribution, the ligand coordination modes, complex stoichiometry and geometry. Thinking about the whole environment where a protein acts, investigations are often challenging, and simplifications are required to study in detail the mechanisms of metal interaction. This chapter is intended to help researchers addressing the problem of the complexity of metal-protein interactions, with particular emphasis on the use of peptides as model systems for the metal coordination site. The thermodynamic and spectroscopic methods most widely employed to investigate the interaction between metal ions and peptides in solution are here covered. These include solid-phase peptide synthesis, potentiometric titrations, calorimetry, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, UV-Vis spectrophotometry, circular dichroism (CD), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). Additional experimental methods, which can be employed to study metal complexes with peptides, are also briefly mentioned. A case-study is finally reported providing a practical example of the investigation of metal-protein interaction by means of thermodynamic and spectroscopic methods applied to peptide model systems.

Metal coordination to solute binding proteins - exciting chemistry with potential biological meaning.

Zn(II) is essential for bacterial survival and virulence. In host cells, its abundance is extremely limited, thus, bacteria have evolved transport mechanisms that enable them to take up this essential metal nutrient. Paracoccus denitrificans encodes two solute binding proteins (SBPs) - ZnuA and AztC, which are responsible for zinc acquisition from the host cells. We focus on understanding the interactions of Zn(II) and Ni(II) (zinc's potential competitor, which is a biologically relevant metal ion essential for various bacterial enzymes) with the extracellular ZnuA and AztC's loops from P. denitrificans that are expected to be possible Zn(II) binding sites. In the case of Zn(II) complexes with ZnuA outercellular loop regions, the numerous histidines act as anchoring donors, forming complexes with up to four coordinated His residues, while in the AztC region, three imidazole nitrogens and one water molecule are involved in Zn(II) binding. In Zn(II) complexes with ZnuA His-rich loop regions, so-called polymorphic binding sites are observed. The large number of available imidazoles and carboxylic side chains also strongly affects the structure of Ni(II) complexes; the more histidines in the studied peptide, the higher the affinity to bind Ni(II) and the higher the pH value at which amide nitrogens start to participate in Ni(II) binding. Additionally, for Ni(II)-ZnuA complexes, a more rare octahedral geometry is observed and such complexes are more stable than the corresponding Zn(II) ones, in contrast to what was observed in the AztC region, suggesting that the numerous histidyl and glutamic acid side chains are more tempting for Ni(II) than for Zn(II).The general strong affinity of Zn(II)-zincophore complexes is also discussed.

Calcitermin-Loaded Smart Gels Activity against Candida albicans: A Preliminary In Vitro Study.

Calcitermin is an antimicrobial peptide of 15 amino acids found in human nasal fluid characterized by antifungal and antibacterial properties. Candida albicans is the most common human fungal pathogen affecting many tissues, such as vaginal mucosa. In this study a formulation suitable for calcitermin administration on vaginal mucosa was developed for the treatment of fungal infections. To favor topical application, mucosal adhesion, and permanence, gels based on poloxamer 407 and xanthan gum were designed and compared with regard to their rheological behavior, erosion, and leakage. The selected gel was loaded with calcitermin, whose release kinetic was evaluated in vitro by Franz cells. An antifungal activity assay was conducted to assess the calcitermin anticandidal potential and the effect of its inclusion in the selected gel. The rheological study revealed the elastic and viscous moduli behavior as a function of poloxamer 407 and xanthan gum concentration. Xanthan gum presence decreased the transition temperature of the gel, while prolonging its erosion and leakage. Particularly, poloxamer 407, 18% and xanthan gum 0.4% were chosen. The calcitermin loading in the selected gel resulted in a transparent and homogeneous formulation and in a 4-fold decrease of the release rate with respect to the calcitermin solution, as evidenced by Franz cell study. The anticandidal activity tests demonstrated that calcitermin-loaded gel was more active against Candida albicans with respect to the peptide solution.

Impact of C- and N-terminal protection on the stability, metal chelation and antimicrobial properties of calcitermin.

The main limitation to the use of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) as regular drugs, against antibiotic and antifungal resistance, mainly relates to their rapid degradation by proteolytic enzymes. The introduction of suitable structural changes in the peptide chain can make the peptide less susceptible to the action of proteases, thus overcoming this problem. To improve the plasma stability of calcitermin, a metal-chelating AMP present in the human respiratory tract and investigated in the present study, C- and/or N- terminal modifications have been introduced in the native sequence. Evaluation of peptide stability has been performed to determine the half-life times in human plasma of both native calcitermin and its derivatives. However, the protection of the peptide termini can also affect its metal coordination behaviour. Thus, the characterization of Zn2+ and Cu2+ complexes has been performed by means of several techniques, including potentiometry, high-resolution mass spectrometry, UV-Vis, circular dichroism and EPR. On the basis of the obtained results, it was possible to compare the biological activity of the studied systems, taking into account both the metal-binding ability and the peptide stability to search for a link among them. A significant result of this study is that the N-terminal protection increases the calcitermin half-life over seven times and the formation of metal complexes confers resistance towards degradation almost doubling its half-life.

The coordination of NiII and Cu(II) ions to the polyhistidyl motif of Hpn protein: is it as strong as we think?

Hpn, one of Helicobacter pylori's nickel-accessory proteins, is an amazingly peculiar protein: Almost half of its sequence consists of polyhistidyl (poly-His) residues. Herein, we try to understand the origin of this naturally occurring sequence, thereby shedding some light on the bioinorganic chemistry of Hpn's numerous poly-His repeats. By using potentiometric, mass spectrometric, and various spectroscopic techniques, we studied the Ni(II) - and Cu(II) complexes of the wild-type Ac-THHHHYHGG-NH(2) fragment of Hpn and of its six analogues, in which consecutive residues (His or Tyr) were replaced by Ala (Ala-substitution or Ala-scan approaches), thereby resulting in Ac-TAHHHYHGG-NH(2), Ac-THAHHYHGG-NH(2), Ac-THHAHYHGG-NH(2), Ac-THHHAYHGG-NH(2), Ac-THHHHAHGG-NH(2), and Ac-THHHHYAGG-NH(2) peptides. We found that the His4 residue is critical for both Ni(II) - and Cu(II) -ion binding and the effectiveness of binding varies even if the substituted amino acid does not take part in the direct binding interactions.

Zn2+ and Cu2+ Binding to the Extramembrane Loop of Zrt2, a Zinc Transporter of Candida albicans.

Zrt2 is a zinc transporter of the ZIP family. It is predicted to be located in the plasma membrane and it is essential for Candida albicans zinc uptake and growth at acidic pH. Zrt2 from C. albicans is composed of 370 amino acids and contains eight putative transmembrane domains and an extra-membrane disordered loop, corresponding to the amino acid sequence 126-215. This protein region contains at least three possible metal binding motifs: HxHxHxxD (144-153), HxxHxxEHxD (181-193) and the Glu- and Asp- rich sequence DDEEEDxE (161-168). The corresponding model peptides, protected at their termini (Ac-GPHTHSHFGD-NH2, Ac-DDEEEDLE-NH2 and Ac-PSHFAHAQEHQDP-NH2), have been investigated in order to elucidate the thermodynamic and coordination properties of their Zn2+ and Cu2+ complexes, with the further aim to identify the most effective metal binding site among the three fragments. Furthermore, we extended the investigation to the peptides Ac-GPHTHAHFGD-NH2 and Ac-PAHFAHAQEHQDP-NH2, where serine residues have been substituted by alanines in order to check if the presence of a serine residue may favor the displacement of amidic protons by Cu2+. In the native Zrt2 protein, the Ac-GPHTHSHFGD-NH2 region of the Zrt2 loop has the highest metal binding affinity, showing that three alternated histidines separated by only one residue (-HxHxH-) bind Zn2+ and Cu2+ more strongly than the region in which three histidines are separated by two and three His residues (-HxxHxxxH- in Ac-PSHFAHAQEHQDP-NH2). All studied Zrt2 loop fragments have lower affinity towards Zn2+ than the zinc(II) binding site on the Zrt1 transporter; also, all three Zrt2 regions bind Zn2+ and Cu2+ with comparable affinity below pH 5 and, therefore, may equally contribute to the metal acquisition under the most acidic conditions in which the Zrt2 transporter is expressed.

Correction: Novel insights into the metal binding ability of ZinT periplasmic protein from Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica.

Correction for 'Novel insights into the metal binding ability of ZinT periplasmic protein from Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica' by Denise Bellotti et al., Dalton Trans., 2020, 49, 9393-9403, DOI: 10.1039/D0DT01626H.

How Zinc-Binding Systems, Expressed by Human Pathogens, Acquire Zinc from the Colonized Host Environment: A Critical Review on Zincophores.

Some transition metals, like manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper and zinc, required for the biosynthesis of metalloenzymes and metalloproteins, are essential micronutrients for the growth and development of pathogenic microorganisms. Among the defenses put in place by the host organism, the so-called "nutritional immunity" consists of reducing the availability of micronutrients and thus "starving" the pathogen. In the case of metals, microorganisms can fight the nutritional immunity in different ways, i.e. by directly recruiting the metal ion or capturing an extracellular metalloprotein or also through the synthesis of specific metallophores which allow importing the metal in the form of a chelate complex. The best known and most studied metallophores are those directed to iron (siderophores), but analogous chelators are also expressed by microorganisms to capture other metals, such as zinc. An efficient zinc recruitment can also be achieved by means of specialized zinc-binding proteins. A deep knowledge of the properties, structure and action mechanisms of extracytoplasmic zinc chelators can be a powerful tool to find out new therapeutic strategies against the antibiotic and/or antifungal resistance. This review aims to collect the knowledge concerning zincophores (small molecules and proteins in charge of zinc acquisition) expressed by bacterial or fungal microorganisms that are pathogenic for the human body.