Nucleosomal arrays self-assemble into supramolecular globular structures lacking 30-nm fibers.

The existence of a 30-nm fiber as a basic folding unit for DNA packaging has remained a topic of active discussion. Here, we characterize the supramolecular structures formed by reversible Mg(2+)-dependent self-association of linear 12-mer nucleosomal arrays using microscopy and physicochemical approaches. These reconstituted chromatin structures, which we call "oligomers", are globular throughout all stages of cooperative assembly and range in size from ~50 nm to a maximum diameter of ~1,000 nm. The nucleosomal arrays were packaged within the oligomers as interdigitated 10-nm fibers, rather than folded 30-nm structures. Linker DNA was freely accessible to micrococcal nuclease, although the oligomers remained partially intact after linker DNA digestion. The organization of chromosomal fibers in human nuclei in situ was stabilized by 1 mM MgCl2, but became disrupted in the absence of MgCl2, conditions that also dissociated the oligomers in vitro These results indicate that a 10-nm array of nucleosomes has the intrinsic ability to self-assemble into large chromatin globules stabilized by nucleosome-nucleosome interactions, and suggest that the oligomers are a good in vitro model for investigating the structure and organization of interphase chromosomes.

The 10-nm chromatin fiber and its relationship to interphase chromosome organization.

A chromosome is a single long DNA molecule assembled along its length with nucleosomes and proteins. During interphase, a mammalian chromosome exists as a highly organized supramolecular globule in the nucleus. Here, we discuss new insights into how genomic DNA is packaged and organized within interphase chromosomes. Our emphasis is on the structural principles that underlie chromosome organization, with a particular focus on the intrinsic contributions of the 10-nm chromatin fiber, but not the regular 30-nm fiber. We hypothesize that the hierarchical globular organization of an interphase chromosome is fundamentally established by the self-interacting properties of a 10-nm zig-zag array of nucleosomes, while histone post-translational modifications, histone variants, and chromatin-associated proteins serve to mold generic chromatin domains into specific structural and functional entities.

Linker histone H1 and protein-protein interactions.

Linker histones H1 are ubiquitous chromatin proteins that play important roles in chromatin compaction, transcription regulation, nucleosome spacing and chromosome spacing. H1 function in DNA and chromatin structure stabilization is well studied and established. The current paradigm of linker histone mode of function considers all other cellular roles of linker histones to be a consequence from H1 chromatin compaction and repression. Here we review the multiple processes regulated by linker histones and the emerging importance of protein interactions in H1 functioning. We propose a new paradigm which explains the multi functionality of linker histones through linker histones protein interactions as a way to directly regulate recruitment of proteins to chromatin.

Detection of Biallelic Loss of DNA Repair Genes in Formalin-Fixed, Paraffin-Embedded Tumor Samples Using a Novel Tumor-Only Sequencing Panel.

Patient selection for synthetic lethal-based cancer therapy may be improved by assessment of gene-specific loss of heterozygosity (LOH) and biallelic loss of function (LOF). This report describes SyNthetic lethal Interactions for Precision Diagnostics (SNiPDx), a targeted next-generation sequencing (NGS) panel for detection of LOH and biallelic LOF alterations in 26 target genes focused on DNA damage response pathways, in tumor-only formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) samples. NGS was performed across all exons of these 26 genes and encompassed a total of 7632 genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphisms on genomic DNA from 80 FFPE solid tumor samples. The Fraction and Allele-Specific Copy Number Estimates from Tumor Sequencing algorithm was optimized to assess tumor purity and copy number based on heterozygous single-nucleotide polymorphisms. SNiPDx demonstrated high sensitivity (95%) and specificity (91%) for LOH detection compared with whole genome sequencing. Positive agreement with local NGS-based testing in the detection of genetic alterations was 95%. SNiPDx detected 93% of biallelic ATM LOF mutations, 100% of ATM single-nucleotide variants and small insertions/deletions, and 100% of all ATM LOH status events identified by orthogonal NGS-based testing. SNiPDx is a novel, clinically feasible test for analysis of allelic status in FFPE tumor samples, which demonstrated high accuracy when compared with other NGS-based approaches in clinical use.

Identifying Genomic Sites of ADP-Ribosylation Mediated by Specific Nuclear PARP Enzymes Using Click-ChIP.

Nuclear poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs), including PARPs 1, 2, and 3 and the Tankyrases, belong to a family of enzymes that can bind to chromatin and covalently modify histone- and chromatin-associated proteins with ADP-ribose derived from nuclear NAD+. The genomic loci where the nuclear PARPs bind and covalently modify chromatin are a fundamental question in PARP biology. Chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with deep sequencing (ChIP-seq) has become an essential tool for determining specific sites of binding and modification genome-wide. Few methods are available, however, for localizing PARP-specific ADP-ribosylation events across the genome. Here we describe a variation of ChIP-seq, called Click-ChIP-seq, for identifying sites of ADP-ribosylation mediated by specific PARP family members. This method uses analog-sensitive PARP (asPARP) technology, including asPARP mutants and the alkyne-containing "clickable" NAD+ analog 8-Bu(3-yne)T-NAD+. In this assay, nuclei from cells expressing an asPARP protein of interest are incubated with 8-Bu(3-yne)T-NAD+, which is incorporated into ADP-ribose modifications mediated only by that specific asPARP protein. The nuclei are then subjected to cross-linking with formaldehyde, and the protein-linked analog ADP-ribose is clicked to biotin using copper-catalyzed alkyne-azide "click" chemistry. The chromatin is fragmented, and the fragments containing analog ADP-ribose are enriched using streptavidin-mediated precipitation. Finally, the enriched DNA is analyzed by qPCR or deep-sequencing experiments to determine which genomic loci contain ADP-ribose modifications mediated by the specific PARP protein of interest. Click-ChIP-seq has proven to be a robust and reproducible method for identifying chromatin-associated, PARP-specific ADP-ribosylation events genome-wide.

Acetylation Mimics Within a Single Nucleosome Alter Local DNA Accessibility In Compacted Nucleosome Arrays.

The activation of a silent gene locus is thought to involve pioneering transcription factors that initiate changes in the local chromatin structure to increase promoter accessibility and binding of downstream effectors. To better understand the molecular requirements for the first steps of locus activation, we investigated whether acetylation of a single nucleosome is sufficient to alter DNA accessibility within a condensed 25-nucleosome array. We found that acetylation mimics within the histone H4 tail domain increased accessibility of the surrounding linker DNA, with the increased accessibility localized to the immediate vicinity of the modified nucleosome. In contrast, acetylation mimics within the H3 tail had little effect, but were able to synergize with H4 tail acetylation mimics to further increase accessibility. Moreover, replacement of the central nucleosome with a nucleosome free region also resulted in increased local, but not global DNA accessibility. Our results indicate that modification or disruption of only a single target nucleosome results in significant changes in local chromatin architecture and suggest that very localized chromatin modifications imparted by pioneer transcription factors are sufficient to initiate a cascade of events leading to promoter activation.

Chromatin folding and DNA replication inhibition mediated by a highly antitumor-active tetrazolato-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complex.

Chromatin DNA must be read out for various cellular functions, and copied for the next cell division. These processes are targets of many anticancer agents. Platinum-based drugs, such as cisplatin, have been used extensively in cancer chemotherapy. The drug-DNA interaction causes DNA crosslinks and subsequent cytotoxicity. Recently, it was reported that an azolato-bridged dinuclear platinum(II) complex, 5-H-Y, exhibits a different anticancer spectrum from cisplatin. Here, using an interdisciplinary approach, we reveal that the cytotoxic mechanism of 5-H-Y is distinct from that of cisplatin. 5-H-Y inhibits DNA replication and also RNA transcription, arresting cells in the S/G2 phase, and are effective against cisplatin-resistant cancer cells. Moreover, it causes much less DNA crosslinking than cisplatin, and induces chromatin folding. 5-H-Y will expand the clinical applications for the treatment of chemotherapy-insensitive cancers.

Sedimentation Velocity Analysis of Large Oligomeric Chromatin Complexes Using Interference Detection.

Sedimentation velocity experiments measure the transport of molecules in solution under centrifugal force. Here, we describe a method for monitoring the sedimentation of very large biological molecular assemblies using the interference optical systems of the analytical ultracentrifuge. The mass, partial-specific volume, and shape of macromolecules in solution affect their sedimentation rates as reflected in the sedimentation coefficient. The sedimentation coefficient is obtained by measuring the solute concentration as a function of radial distance during centrifugation. Monitoring the concentration can be accomplished using interference optics, absorbance optics, or the fluorescence detection system, each with inherent advantages. The interference optical system captures data much faster than these other optical systems, allowing for sedimentation velocity analysis of extremely large macromolecular complexes that sediment rapidly at very low rotor speeds. Supramolecular oligomeric complexes produced by self-association of 12-mer chromatin fibers are used to illustrate the advantages of the interference optics. Using interference optics, we show that chromatin fibers self-associate at physiological divalent salt concentrations to form structures that sediment between 10,000 and 350,000S. The method for characterizing chromatin oligomers described in this chapter will be generally useful for characterization of any biological structures that are too large to be studied by the absorbance optical system.

Increasing prion propensity by hydrophobic insertion.

Prion formation involves the conversion of proteins from a soluble form into an infectious amyloid form. Most yeast prion proteins contain glutamine/asparagine-rich regions that are responsible for prion aggregation. Prion formation by these domains is driven primarily by amino acid composition, not primary sequence, yet there is a surprising disconnect between the amino acids thought to have the highest aggregation propensity and those that are actually found in yeast prion domains. Specifically, a recent mutagenic screen suggested that both aromatic and non-aromatic hydrophobic residues strongly promote prion formation. However, while aromatic residues are common in yeast prion domains, non-aromatic hydrophobic residues are strongly under-represented. Here, we directly test the effects of hydrophobic and aromatic residues on prion formation. Remarkably, we found that insertion of as few as two hydrophobic residues resulted in a multiple orders-of-magnitude increase in prion formation, and significant acceleration of in vitro amyloid formation. Thus, insertion or deletion of hydrophobic residues provides a simple tool to control the prion activity of a protein. These data, combined with bioinformatics analysis, suggest a limit on the number of strongly prion-promoting residues tolerated in glutamine/asparagine-rich domains. This limit may explain the under-representation of non-aromatic hydrophobic residues in yeast prion domains. Prion activity requires not only that a protein be able to form prion fibers, but also that these fibers be cleaved to generate new independently-segregating aggregates to offset dilution by cell division. Recent studies suggest that aromatic residues, but not non-aromatic hydrophobic residues, support the fiber cleavage step. Therefore, we propose that while both aromatic and non-aromatic hydrophobic residues promote prion formation, aromatic residues are favored in yeast prion domains because they serve a dual function, promoting both prion formation and chaperone-dependent prion propagation.

Assembly of nucleosomal arrays from recombinant core histones and nucleosome positioning DNA.

Core histone octamers that are repetitively spaced along a DNA molecule are called nucleosomal arrays. Nucleosomal arrays are obtained in one of two ways: purification from in vivo sources, or reconstitution in vitro from recombinant core histones and tandemly repeated nucleosome positioning DNA. The latter method has the benefit of allowing for the assembly of a more compositionally uniform and precisely positioned nucleosomal array. Sedimentation velocity experiments in the analytical ultracentrifuge yield information about the size and shape of macromolecules by analyzing the rate at which they migrate through solution under centrifugal force. This technique, along with atomic force microscopy, can be used for quality control, ensuring that the majority of DNA templates are saturated with nucleosomes after reconstitution. Here we describe the protocols necessary to reconstitute milligram quantities of length and compositionally defined nucleosomal arrays suitable for biochemical and biophysical studies of chromatin structure and function.