Artificial Intelligence to Improve Risk Prediction with Nuclear Cardiac Studies.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: As machine learning-based artificial intelligence (AI) continues to revolutionize the way in which we analyze data, the field of nuclear cardiology provides fertile ground for the implementation of these complex analytics. This review summarizes and discusses the principles regarding nuclear cardiology techniques and AI, and the current evidence regarding its performance and contribution to the improvement of risk prediction in cardiovascular disease. There is a growing body of evidence on the experimentation with and implementation of machine learning-based AI on nuclear cardiology studies both concerning SPECT and PET technology for the improvement of risk-of-disease (classification of disease) and risk-of-events (prediction of adverse events) estimations. These publications still report objective divergence in methods either utilizing statistical machine learning approaches or deep learning with varying architectures, dataset sizes, and performance. Recent efforts have been placed into bringing standardization and quality to the experimentation and application of machine learning-based AI in cardiovascular imaging to generate standards in data harmonization and analysis through AI. Machine learning-based AI offers the possibility to improve risk evaluation in cardiovascular disease through its implementation on cardiac nuclear studies. AI in improving risk evaluation in nuclear cardiology. * Based on the 2019 ESC guidelines.

Estimating central blood pressure from aortic flow: development and assessment of algorithms.

Central blood pressure (cBP) is a highly prognostic cardiovascular (CV) risk factor whose accurate, invasive assessment is costly and carries risks to patients. We developed and assessed novel algorithms for estimating cBP from noninvasive aortic hemodynamic data and a peripheral blood pressure measurement. These algorithms were created using three blood flow models: the two- and three-element Windkessel (0-D) models and a one-dimensional (1-D) model of the thoracic aorta. We tested new and existing methods for estimating CV parameters (left ventricular ejection time, outflow BP, arterial resistance and compliance, pulse wave velocity, and characteristic impedance) required for the cBP algorithms, using virtual (simulated) subjects (n = 19,646) for which reference CV parameters were known exactly. We then tested the cBP algorithms using virtual subjects (n = 4,064), for which reference cBP were available free of measurement error, and clinical datasets containing invasive (n = 10) and noninvasive (n = 171) reference cBP waves across a wide range of CV conditions. The 1-D algorithm outperformed the 0-D algorithms when the aortic vascular geometry was available, achieving central systolic blood pressure (cSBP) errors ≤ 2.1 ± 9.7 mmHg and root-mean-square errors (RMSEs) ≤ 6.4 ± 2.8 mmHg against invasive reference cBP waves (n = 10). When the aortic geometry was unavailable, the three-element 0-D algorithm achieved cSBP errors ≤ 6.0 ± 4.7 mmHg and RMSEs ≤ 5.9 ± 2.4 mmHg against noninvasive reference cBP waves (n = 171), outperforming the two-element 0-D algorithm. All CV parameters were estimated with mean percentage errors ≤ 8.2%, except for the aortic characteristic impedance (≤13.4%), which affected the three-element 0-D algorithm's performance. The freely available algorithms developed in this work enable fast and accurate calculation of the cBP wave and CV parameters in datasets containing noninvasive ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging data.NEW & NOTEWORTHY First, our proposed methods for CV parameter estimation and a comprehensive set of methods from the literature were tested using in silico and clinical datasets. Second, optimized algorithms for estimating cBP from aortic flow were developed and tested for a wide range of cBP morphologies, including catheter cBP data. Third, a dataset of simulated cBP waves was created using a three-element Windkessel model. Fourth, the Windkessel model dataset and optimized algorithms are freely available.

MRI for Guided Right and Left Heart Cardiac Catheterization: A Prospective Study in Congenital Heart Disease.

BACKGROUND: Improvements in outcomes for patients with congenital heart disease (CHD) have increased the need for diagnostic and interventional procedures. Cumulative radiation risk is a growing concern. MRI-guided interventions are a promising ionizing radiation-free, alternative approach. PURPOSE: To assess the feasibility of MRI-guided catheterization in young patients with CHD using advanced visualization passive tracking techniques. STUDY TYPE: Prospective. POPULATION: A total of 30 patients with CHD referred for MRI-guided catheterization and pulmonary vascular resistance analysis (median age/weight: 4 years / 15 kg). FIELD STRENGTH/SEQUENCE: 1.5T; partially saturated (pSAT) real-time single-shot balanced steady-state free-precession (bSSFP) sequence. ASSESSMENT: Images were visualized by a single viewer on the scanner console (interactive mode) or using a commercially available advanced visualization platform (iSuite, Philips). Image quality for anatomy and catheter visualization was evaluated by three cardiologists with >5 years' experience in MRI-catheterization using a 1-5 scale (1, poor, 5, excellent). Catheter balloon signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), blood and myocardium SNR, catheter balloon/blood contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR), balloon/myocardium CNR, and blood/myocardium CNR were measured. Procedure findings, feasibility, and adverse events were recorded. A fraction of time in which the catheter was visible was compared between iSuite and the interactive mode. STATISTICAL TESTS: T-test for numerical variables. Wilcoxon signed rank test for categorical variables. RESULTS: Nine patients had right heart catheterization, 11 had both left and right heart catheterization, and 10 had single ventricle circulation. Nine patients underwent solely MRI-guided catheterization. The mean score for anatomical visualization and contrast between balloon tip and soft tissue was 3.9 ± 0.9 and 4.5 ± 0.7, respectively. iSuite provided a significant improvement in the time during which the balloon was visible in relation to interactive imaging mode (66 ± 17% vs. 46 ± 14%, P < 0.05). DATA CONCLUSION: MRI-guided catheterizations were carried out safely and is feasible in children and adults with CHD. The pSAT sequence offered robust and simultaneous high contrast visualization of the catheter and cardiac anatomy. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 2 TECHNICAL EFFICACY STAGE: 1.

Automated quantification of myocardial tissue characteristics from native T1 mapping using neural networks with uncertainty-based quality-control.

BACKGROUND: Tissue characterisation with cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) parametric mapping has the potential to detect and quantify both focal and diffuse alterations in myocardial structure not assessable by late gadolinium enhancement. Native T1 mapping in particular has shown promise as a useful biomarker to support diagnostic, therapeutic and prognostic decision-making in ischaemic and non-ischaemic cardiomyopathies. METHODS: Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) with Bayesian inference are a category of artificial neural networks which model the uncertainty of the network output. This study presents an automated framework for tissue characterisation from native shortened modified Look-Locker inversion recovery ShMOLLI T1 mapping at 1.5 T using a Probabilistic Hierarchical Segmentation (PHiSeg) network (PHCUMIS 119-127, 2019). In addition, we use the uncertainty information provided by the PHiSeg network in a novel automated quality control (QC) step to identify uncertain T1 values. The PHiSeg network and QC were validated against manual analysis on a cohort of the UK Biobank containing healthy subjects and chronic cardiomyopathy patients (N=100 for the PHiSeg network and N=700 for the QC). We used the proposed method to obtain reference T1 ranges for the left ventricular (LV) myocardium in healthy subjects as well as common clinical cardiac conditions. RESULTS: T1 values computed from automatic and manual segmentations were highly correlated (r=0.97). Bland-Altman analysis showed good agreement between the automated and manual measurements. The average Dice metric was 0.84 for the LV myocardium. The sensitivity of detection of erroneous outputs was 91%. Finally, T1 values were automatically derived from 11,882 CMR exams from the UK Biobank. For the healthy cohort, the mean (SD) corrected T1 values were 926.61 (45.26), 934.39 (43.25) and 927.56 (50.36) for global, interventricular septum and free-wall respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed pipeline allows for automatic analysis of myocardial native T1 mapping and includes a QC process to detect potentially erroneous results. T1 reference values were presented for healthy subjects and common clinical cardiac conditions from the largest cohort to date using T1-mapping images.

Improved passive catheter tracking with positive contrast for CMR-guided cardiac catheterization using partial saturation (pSAT).

BACKGROUND: Cardiac catheterization is a common procedure in patients with congenital heart disease (CHD). Although cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging (CMR) represents a promising alternative approach to fluoroscopy guidance, simultaneous high contrast visualization of catheter, soft tissue and the blood pool remains challenging. In this study, a novel passive tracking technique is proposed for enhanced positive contrast visualization of gadolinium-filled balloon catheters using partial saturation (pSAT) magnetization preparation. METHODS: The proposed pSAT sequence uses a single shot acquisition with balanced steady-state free precession (bSSFP) readout preceded by a partial saturation pre-pulse. This technique was initially evaluated in five healthy subjects. The pSAT sequence was compared to conventional bSSFP images acquired with (SAT) and without (Non-SAT) saturation pre-pulse. Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the catheter balloon, blood and myocardium and the corresponding contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) are reported. Subjective assessment of image suitability for CMR-guidance and ideal pSAT angle was performed by three cardiologists. The feasibility of the pSAT sequence is demonstrated in two adult patients undergoing CMR-guided cardiac catheterization. RESULTS: The proposed pSAT approach provided better catheter balloon/blood contrast and catheter balloon/myocardium contrast than conventional Non-SAT sequences. It also resulted in better blood and myocardium SNR than SAT sequences. When averaged over all volunteers, images acquired with a pSAT angle of 20° to 40° enabled simultaneous visualization of the catheter balloon and the cardiovascular anatomy (blood and myocardium) and were found suitable for CMR-guidance in >93% of cases. The pSAT sequence was successfully used in two patients undergoing CMR-guided diagnostic cardiac catheterization. CONCLUSIONS: The proposed pSAT sequence offers real-time, simultaneous, enhanced contrast visualization of the catheter balloon, soft tissues and blood. This technique provides improved passive tracking capabilities during CMR-guided catheterization in patients.

Morphological three-dimensional analysis of papillary muscles in borderline left ventricles.

OBJECTIVE: Mitral valve anatomy has a significant impact on potential surgical options for patients with hypoplastic or borderline left ventricle. Papillary muscle morphology is a major component regarding this aspect. The purpose of this study was to use cardiac magnetic resonance to describe the differences in papillary muscle anatomy between normal, borderline, and hypoplastic left ventricles. METHODS: We carried out a retrospective, observational cardiac magnetic resonance study of children (median age 5.36 years) with normal (n=30), borderline (n=22), or hypoplastic (n=13) left ventricles. Borderline and hypoplastic cases had undergone an initial hybrid procedure. Morphological features of the papillary muscles, location, and arrangement were analysed and compared across groups. RESULTS: All normal ventricles had two papillary muscles with narrow pedicles; however, 18% of borderline and 46% of hypoplastic cases had a single papillary muscle, usually the inferomedial type. In addition, in borderline or hypoplastic ventricles, the supporting pedicle occasionally displayed a wide insertion along the ventricular wall. The length ratio of the superolateral support was significantly different between groups (normal: 0.46±0.08; borderline: 0.39±0.07; hypoplastic: 0.36±0.1; p=0.009). No significant difference, however, was found when analysing the inferomedial type (0.42±0.09; 0.38±0.07; 0.39±0.22, p=0.39). The angle subtended between supports was also similar among groups (113°±17°; 111°±51° and 114°±57°; p=0.99). A total of eight children with borderline left ventricle underwent biventricular repair. There were no significant differentiating features for papillary muscle morphology in this subgroup. CONCLUSIONS: The superolateral support can be shorter or absent in borderline or hypoplastic left ventricle cases. The papillary muscle pedicles in these patients often show a broad insertion. These changes have important implications on surgical options and should be described routinely.

Patient-specific closed-loop model of the fontan circulation: Calibration and validation.

The Fontan circulation, designed for managing patients with a single functional ventricle, presents challenges in long-term outcomes. Computational methods offer potential solutions, yet their application in cardiology practice remains largely unexplored. Our aim was to assess the ability of a patient-specific, closed-loop, reduced-order blood flow model to simulate pulsatile blood flow in the Fontan circulation. Using one-dimensional models, we simulated the aorta, superior and inferior venae cavae, and right and left pulmonary arteries, while lumping heart chambers and remaining vessels into zero-dimensional models. The model was calibrated with patient-specific haemodynamic data from combined cardiac catheterisation and magnetic resonance exams, using a novel physics-based stepwise methodology involving simpler open-loop models. Testing on a 10-year-old, anesthetised patient, demonstrated the model's capability to replicate pulsatile pressure and flow in the larger vessels and ventricular pressure. Average relative errors in mean pressure and flow were 2.9 % and 3.6 %, with average relative point-to-point errors (RPPE) in pressure and flow at 5.2 % and 16.0 %. Comparing simulation results to measurements, mean aortic pressure and flow values were 50.7 vs. 50.4 mmHg and 41.6 vs. 41.9 ml/s, respectively, while ventricular pressure values were 28.7 vs. 27.4 mmHg. The model accurately described time-varying ventricular volume with a RPPE of 2.9 %, with mean, minimum, and maximum ventricular volume values for simulation results vs. measurements at 59.2 vs. 58.2 ml, 38.0 vs. 37.6 ml, and 76.0 vs. 74.4 ml, respectively. It provided physiologically realistic predictions of haemodynamic changes from pulmonary vasodilation and atrial fenestration opening. The new model and calibration methodology are freely available, offering a platform to virtually investigate the Fontan circulation's response to clinical interventions and explore potential mechanisms of Fontan failure. Future efforts will concentrate on broadening the model's applicability to a wider range of patient populations and clinical scenarios, as well as testing its effectiveness.

A Deep Learning-Based Integrated Framework for Quality-Aware Undersampled Cine Cardiac MRI Reconstruction and Analysis.

Cine cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging is considered the gold standard for cardiac function evaluation. However, cine CMR acquisition is inherently slow and in recent decades considerable effort has been put into accelerating scan times without compromising image quality or the accuracy of derived results. In this article, we present a fully-automated, quality-controlled integrated framework for reconstruction, segmentation and downstream analysis of undersampled cine CMR data. The framework produces high quality reconstructions and segmentations, leading to undersampling factors that are optimised on a scan-by-scan basis. This results in reduced scan times and automated analysis, enabling robust and accurate estimation of functional biomarkers. To demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed approach, we perform simulations of radial k-space acquisitions using in-vivo cine CMR data from 270 subjects from the UK Biobank (with synthetic phase) and in-vivo cine CMR data from 16 healthy subjects (with real phase). The results demonstrate that the optimal undersampling factor varies for different subjects by approximately 1 to 2 seconds per slice. We show that our method can produce quality-controlled images in a mean scan time reduced from 12 to 4 seconds per slice, and that image quality is sufficient to allow clinically relevant parameters to be automatically estimated to lie within 5% mean absolute difference.

Hemodynamic Determinants of Elevated Blood Pressure and Hypertension in the Middle to Older-Age UK Population: A UK Biobank Imaging Study.

BACKGROUND: Increased systemic vascular resistance and, in older people, reduced aortic distensibility, are thought to be the hemodynamic determinants of primary hypertension but cardiac output could also be important. We examined the hemodynamics of elevated blood pressure and hypertension in the middle to older-aged UK population participating in the UK Biobank imaging studies. METHODS: Cardiac output, systemic vascular resistance, and aortic distensibility were measured from cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in 31 112 (distensibility in 21 178) participants (46.3% male, mean age±SD 63±7 years). Body composition including visceral adipose tissue volume and abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue volume were measured in 19 645 participants. RESULTS: Participants with higher blood pressure had higher cardiac output (higher by 17.9±26.6% in hypertensive compared with those with optimal blood pressure) and higher systemic vascular resistance (higher by 11.4±27.9% in hypertensive compared with those with optimal blood pressure). These differences were little changed after adjustment for body size and adiposity. The contribution of cardiac output relative to systemic vascular resistance was more marked in younger compared with older subjects. Aortic distensibility decreased with age and was lower in participants with higher compared with lower blood pressure but with a greater difference in younger compared with older subjects. CONCLUSIONS: In the middle to older-aged UK population, cardiac output plays an important role in contributing to elevated mean arterial blood pressure, particularly in younger compared with older subjects. Reduced aortic distensibility contributes to a rise in pulse pressure and systolic blood pressure at all ages.

Cardiac MRI to guide heart failure and atrial fibrillation drug discovery: a Mendelian randomization analysis.

Background: drug development and disease prevention of heart failure (HF) and atrial fibrillation (AF) are impeded by a lack of robust early-stage surrogates. We determined to what extent cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) measurements act as surrogates for the development of HF or AF in healthy individuals. Methods: Genetic data was sourced on the association with 22 atrial and ventricular CMR measurements. Mendelian randomization was used to determine CMR associations with atrial fibrillation (AF), heart failure (HF), non-ischemic cardiomyopathy (CMP), and dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). Additionally, for the CMR surrogates of AF and HF, we explored their association with non-cardiac traits. Results: In total we found that 9 CMR measures were associated with the development of HF, 7 with development of non-ischemic CMR, 6 with DCM, and 12 with AF. biventricular ejection fraction (EF), biventricular or end-systolic volumes (ESV) and left-ventricular (LV) end diastolic volume (EDV) were associated with all 4 cardiac outcomes. Increased LV-MVR (mass to volume ratio) affected HF (odds ratio (OR) 0.83, 95%CI 0.79; 0.88), and DCM (OR 0.26, 95%CI 0.20; 0.34. We were able to identify 9 CMR surrogates for HF and/or AF (including LV-MVR, biventricular EDV, ESV, and right-ventricular EF) which associated with non-cardiac traits such as blood pressure, lung function traits, BMI, cardioembolic stroke, and late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Conclusion: CMR measurements may act as surrogate endpoints for the development of HF (including non-ischemic CMP and DCM) or AF. Additionally, we show that changes in cardiac function and structure measured through CMR, may affect diseases of other organs leading to lung disease or late-onset Alzheimer's disease.

Uncertainty aware training to improve deep learning model calibration for classification of cardiac MR images.

Quantifying uncertainty of predictions has been identified as one way to develop more trustworthy artificial intelligence (AI) models beyond conventional reporting of performance metrics. When considering their role in a clinical decision support setting, AI classification models should ideally avoid confident wrong predictions and maximise the confidence of correct predictions. Models that do this are said to be well calibrated with regard to confidence. However, relatively little attention has been paid to how to improve calibration when training these models, i.e. to make the training strategy uncertainty-aware. In this work we: (i) evaluate three novel uncertainty-aware training strategies with regard to a range of accuracy and calibration performance measures, comparing against two state-of-the-art approaches, (ii) quantify the data (aleatoric) and model (epistemic) uncertainty of all models and (iii) evaluate the impact of using a model calibration measure for model selection in uncertainty-aware training, in contrast to the normal accuracy-based measures. We perform our analysis using two different clinical applications: cardiac resynchronisation therapy (CRT) response prediction and coronary artery disease (CAD) diagnosis from cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) images. The best-performing model in terms of both classification accuracy and the most common calibration measure, expected calibration error (ECE) was the Confidence Weight method, a novel approach that weights the loss of samples to explicitly penalise confident incorrect predictions. The method reduced the ECE by 17% for CRT response prediction and by 22% for CAD diagnosis when compared to a baseline classifier in which no uncertainty-aware strategy was included. In both applications, as well as reducing the ECE there was a slight increase in accuracy from 69% to 70% and 70% to 72% for CRT response prediction and CAD diagnosis respectively. However, our analysis showed a lack of consistency in terms of optimal models when using different calibration measures. This indicates the need for careful consideration of performance metrics when training and selecting models for complex high risk applications in healthcare.

An artificial intelligence tool for automated analysis of large-scale unstructured clinical cine cardiac magnetic resonance databases.

Aims: Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques have been proposed for automating analysis of short-axis (SAX) cine cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR), but no CMR analysis tool exists to automatically analyse large (unstructured) clinical CMR datasets. We develop and validate a robust AI tool for start-to-end automatic quantification of cardiac function from SAX cine CMR in large clinical databases. Methods and results: Our pipeline for processing and analysing CMR databases includes automated steps to identify the correct data, robust image pre-processing, an AI algorithm for biventricular segmentation of SAX CMR and estimation of functional biomarkers, and automated post-analysis quality control to detect and correct errors. The segmentation algorithm was trained on 2793 CMR scans from two NHS hospitals and validated on additional cases from this dataset (n = 414) and five external datasets (n = 6888), including scans of patients with a range of diseases acquired at 12 different centres using CMR scanners from all major vendors. Median absolute errors in cardiac biomarkers were within the range of inter-observer variability: <8.4 mL (left ventricle volume), <9.2 mL (right ventricle volume), <13.3 g (left ventricular mass), and <5.9% (ejection fraction) across all datasets. Stratification of cases according to phenotypes of cardiac disease and scanner vendors showed good performance across all groups. Conclusion: We show that our proposed tool, which combines image pre-processing steps, a domain-generalizable AI algorithm trained on a large-scale multi-domain CMR dataset and quality control steps, allows robust analysis of (clinical or research) databases from multiple centres, vendors, and cardiac diseases. This enables translation of our tool for use in fully automated processing of large multi-centre databases.

Druggable proteins influencing cardiac structure and function: Implications for heart failure therapies and cancer cardiotoxicity.

Dysfunction of either the right or left ventricle can lead to heart failure (HF) and subsequent morbidity and mortality. We performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of 16 cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging measurements of biventricular function and structure. Cis-Mendelian randomization (MR) was used to identify plasma proteins associating with CMR traits as well as with any of the following cardiac outcomes: HF, non-ischemic cardiomyopathy, dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), atrial fibrillation, or coronary heart disease. In total, 33 plasma proteins were prioritized, including repurposing candidates for DCM and/or HF: IL18R (providing indirect evidence for IL18), I17RA, GPC5, LAMC2, PA2GA, CD33, and SLAF7. In addition, 13 of the 25 druggable proteins (52%; 95% confidence interval, 0.31 to 0.72) could be mapped to compounds with known oncological indications or side effects. These findings provide leads to facilitate drug development for cardiac disease and suggest that cardiotoxicities of several cancer treatments might represent mechanism-based adverse effects.

Aortic Distensibility Measured by Automated Analysis of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Predicts Adverse Cardiovascular Events in UK Biobank.

Background Automated analysis of cardiovascular magnetic resonance images provides the potential to assess aortic distensibility in large populations. The aim of this study was to compare the prediction of cardiovascular events by automated cardiovascular magnetic resonance with those of other simple measures of aortic stiffness suitable for population screening. Methods and Results Aortic distensibility was measured from automated segmentation of aortic cine cardiovascular magnetic resonance using artificial intelligence in 8435 participants. The associations of distensibility, brachial pulse pressure, and stiffness index (obtained by finger photoplethysmography) with conventional risk factors was examined by multivariable regression and incident cardiovascular events by Cox proportional-hazards regression. Mean (±SD) distensibility values for men and women were 1.77±1.15 and 2.10±1.45 (P<0.0001) 10-3 mm Hg-1, respectively. There was a good correlation between automatically and manually obtained systolic and diastolic aortic areas (r=0.980 and r=0.985, respectively). In regression analysis, distensibility associated with age, mean arterial pressure, heart rate, weight, and plasma glucose but not male sex, cholesterol or current smoking. During an average follow-up of 2.8±1.3 years, 86 participants experienced cardiovascular events 6 of whom died. Higher distensibility was associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular events (adjusted hazard ratio [HR], 0.61 per log unit of distensibility; P=0.016). There was no evidence of an association between pulse pressure (adjusted HR 1.00; P=0.715) or stiffness index (adjusted HR, 1.02; P=0.535) and risk of cardiovascular events. Conclusions Automated cardiovascular magnetic resonance-derived aortic distensibility may be incorporated into routine clinical imaging. It shows a similar association to cardiovascular risk factors as other measures of arterial stiffness and predicts new-onset cardiovascular events, making it a useful tool for the measurement of vascular aging and associated cardiovascular risk.

Fairness in Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Assessing Sex and Racial Bias in Deep Learning-Based Segmentation.

Background: Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques have been proposed for automation of cine CMR segmentation for functional quantification. However, in other applications AI models have been shown to have potential for sex and/or racial bias. The objective of this paper is to perform the first analysis of sex/racial bias in AI-based cine CMR segmentation using a large-scale database. Methods: A state-of-the-art deep learning (DL) model was used for automatic segmentation of both ventricles and the myocardium from cine short-axis CMR. The dataset consisted of end-diastole and end-systole short-axis cine CMR images of 5,903 subjects from the UK Biobank database (61.5 ± 7.1 years, 52% male, 81% white). To assess sex and racial bias, we compared Dice scores and errors in measurements of biventricular volumes and function between patients grouped by race and sex. To investigate whether segmentation bias could be explained by potential confounders, a multivariate linear regression and ANCOVA were performed. Results: Results on the overall population showed an excellent agreement between the manual and automatic segmentations. We found statistically significant differences in Dice scores between races (white ∼94% vs. minority ethnic groups 86-89%) as well as in absolute/relative errors in volumetric and functional measures, showing that the AI model was biased against minority racial groups, even after correction for possible confounders. The results of a multivariate linear regression analysis showed that no covariate could explain the Dice score bias between racial groups. However, for the Mixed and Black race groups, sex showed a weak positive association with the Dice score. The results of an ANCOVA analysis showed that race was the main factor that can explain the overall difference in Dice scores between racial groups. Conclusion: We have shown that racial bias can exist in DL-based cine CMR segmentation models when training with a database that is sex-balanced but not race-balanced such as the UK Biobank.

Altered Aortic Hemodynamics and Relative Pressure in Patients with Dilated Cardiomyopathy.

Ventricular-vascular interaction is central in the adaptation to cardiovascular disease. However, cardiomyopathy patients are predominantly monitored using cardiac biomarkers. The aim of this study is therefore to explore aortic function in dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). Fourteen idiopathic DCM patients and 16 controls underwent cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, with aortic relative pressure derived using physics-based image processing and a virtual cohort utilized to assess the impact of cardiovascular properties on aortic behaviour. Subjects with reduced left ventricular systolic function had significantly reduced aortic relative pressure, increased aortic stiffness, and significantly delayed time-to-pressure peak duration. From the virtual cohort, aortic stiffness and aortic volumetric size were identified as key determinants of aortic relative pressure. As such, this study shows how advanced flow imaging and aortic hemodynamic evaluation could provide novel insights into the manifestation of DCM, with signs of both altered aortic structure and function derived in DCM using our proposed imaging protocol.

Unlocking the Non-invasive Assessment of Conduit and Reservoir Function in the Aorta : The Obstructive Descending Aorta in HLHS.

Aortic surgeries in congenital conditions, such as hypoplastic left heart syndrome (HLHS), aim to restore and maintain the conduit and reservoir functions of the aorta. We proposed a method to assess these two functions based on 4D flow MRI, and we applied it to study the aorta in pre-Fontan HLHS. Ten pre-Fontan HLHS patients and six age-matched controls were studied to derive the advective pressure difference and viscous dissipation for conduit function, and pulse wave velocity and elastic modulus for reservoir function. The reconstructed neo-aorta in HLHS subjects achieved a good conduit function at a cost of an impaired reservoir function (69.7% increase of elastic modulus). The native descending HLHS aorta displayed enhanced reservoir (elastic modulus being 18.4% smaller) but impaired conduit function (three-fold increase in peak advection). A non-invasive and comprehensive assessment of aortic conduit and reservoir functions is feasible and has potentially clinical relevance in congenital vascular conditions.

Prevalence and Disease Expression of Pathogenic and Likely Pathogenic Variants Associated With Inherited Cardiomyopathies in the General Population.

BACKGROUND: Pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants associated with arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC), dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM), and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) are recommended to be reported as secondary findings in genome sequencing studies. This provides opportunities for early diagnosis, but also fuels uncertainty in variant carriers (G+), since disease penetrance is incomplete. We assessed the prevalence and disease expression of G+ in the general population. METHODS: We identified pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants associated with ARVC, DCM and/or HCM in 200 643 UK Biobank individuals, who underwent whole exome sequencing. We calculated the prevalence of G+ and analyzed the frequency of cardiomyopathy/heart failure diagnosis. In undiagnosed individuals, we analyzed early signs of disease expression using available electrocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging data. RESULTS: We found a prevalence of 1:578, 1:251, and 1:149 for pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants associated with ARVC, DCM and HCM respectively. Compared with controls, cardiovascular mortality was higher in DCM G+ (odds ratio 1.67 [95% CI 1.04; 2.59], P=0.030), but similar in ARVC and HCM G+ (P≥0.100). Cardiomyopathy or heart failure diagnosis were more frequent in DCM G+ (odds ratio 3.66 [95% CI 2.24; 5.81], P=4.9×10-7) and HCM G+ (odds ratio 3.03 [95% CI 1.98; 4.56], P=5.8×10-7), but comparable in ARVC G+ (P=0.172). In contrast, ARVC G+ had more ventricular arrhythmias (P=3.3×10-4). In undiagnosed individuals, left ventricular ejection fraction was reduced in DCM G+ (P=0.009). CONCLUSIONS: In the general population, pathogenic and likely pathogenic variants associated with ARVC, DCM, or HCM are not uncommon. Although G+ have increased mortality and morbidity, disease penetrance in these carriers from the general population remains low (1.2-3.1%). Follow-up decisions in case of incidental findings should not be based solely on a variant, but on multiple factors, including family history and disease expression.

Deep Learning for Classification and Selection of Cine CMR Images to Achieve Fully Automated Quality-Controlled CMR Analysis From Scanner to Report.

Introduction: Deep learning demonstrates great promise for automated analysis of CMR. However, existing limitations, such as insufficient quality control and selection of target acquisitions from the full CMR exam, are holding back the introduction of deep learning tools in the clinical environment. This study aimed to develop a framework for automated detection and quality-controlled selection of standard cine sequences images from clinical CMR exams, prior to analysis of cardiac function. Materials and Methods: Retrospective study of 3,827 subjects that underwent CMR imaging. We used a total of 119,285 CMR acquisitions, acquired with scanners of different magnetic field strengths and from different vendors (1.5T Siemens and 1.5T and 3.0T Phillips). We developed a framework to select one good acquisition for each conventional cine class. The framework consisted of a first pre-processing step to exclude still acquisitions; two sequential convolutional neural networks (CNN), the first (CNNclass) to classify acquisitions in standard cine views (2/3/4-chamber and short axis), the second (CNNQC) to classify acquisitions according to image quality and orientation; a final algorithm to select one good acquisition of each class. For each CNN component, 7 state-of-the-art architectures were trained for 200 epochs, with cross entropy loss and data augmentation. Data were divided into 80% for training, 10% for validation, and 10% for testing. Results: CNNclass selected cine CMR acquisitions with accuracy ranging from 0.989 to 0.998. Accuracy of CNNQC reached 0.861 for 2-chamber, 0.806 for 3-chamber, and 0.859 for 4-chamber. The complete framework was presented with 379 new full CMR studies, not used for CNN training/validation/testing, and selected one good 2-, 3-, and 4-chamber acquisition from each study with sensitivity to detect erroneous cases of 89.7, 93.2, and 93.9%, respectively. Conclusions: We developed an accurate quality-controlled framework for automated selection of cine acquisitions prior to image analysis. This framework is robust and generalizable as it was developed on multivendor data and could be used at the beginning of a pipeline for automated cine CMR analysis to obtain full automatization from scanner to report.

The Role of AI in Characterizing the DCM Phenotype.

Dilated Cardiomyopathy is conventionally defined by left ventricular dilatation and dysfunction in the absence of coronary disease. Emerging evidence suggests many patients remain vulnerable to major adverse outcomes despite clear therapeutic success of modern evidence-based heart failure therapy. In this era of personalized medical care, the conventional assessment of left ventricular ejection fraction falls short in fully predicting evolution and risk of outcomes in this heterogenous group of heart muscle disease, as such, a more refined means of phenotyping this disease appears essential. Cardiac MRI (CMR) is well-placed in this respect, not only for its diagnostic utility, but the wealth of information captured in global and regional function assessment with the addition of unique tissue characterization across different disease states and patient cohorts. Advanced tools are needed to leverage these sensitive metrics and integrate with clinical, genetic and biochemical information for personalized, and more clinically useful characterization of the dilated cardiomyopathy phenotype. Recent advances in artificial intelligence offers the unique opportunity to impact clinical decision making through enhanced precision image-analysis tasks, multi-source extraction of relevant features and seamless integration to enhance understanding, improve diagnosis, and subsequently clinical outcomes. Focusing particularly on deep learning, a subfield of artificial intelligence, that has garnered significant interest in the imaging community, this paper reviews the main developments that could offer more robust disease characterization and risk stratification in the Dilated Cardiomyopathy phenotype. Given its promising utility in the non-invasive assessment of cardiac diseases, we firstly highlight the key applications in CMR, set to enable comprehensive quantitative measures of function beyond the standard of care assessment. Concurrently, we revisit the added value of tissue characterization techniques for risk stratification, showcasing the deep learning platforms that overcome limitations in current clinical workflows and discuss how they could be utilized to better differentiate at-risk subgroups of this phenotype. The final section of this paper is dedicated to the allied clinical applications to imaging, that incorporate artificial intelligence and have harnessed the comprehensive abundance of data from genetics and relevant clinical variables to facilitate better classification and enable enhanced risk prediction for relevant outcomes.