Smoking, use of smokeless tobacco, HLA genotypes and incidence of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults.

AIMS/HYPOTHESES: Smoking and use of smokeless tobacco (snus) are associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes. We investigated whether smoking and snus use increase the risk of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA) and elucidated potential interaction with HLA high-risk genotypes. METHODS: Analyses were based on Swedish case-control data (collected 2010-2019) with incident cases of LADA (n=593) and type 2 diabetes (n=2038), and 3036 controls, and Norwegian prospective data (collected 1984-2019) with incident cases of LADA (n=245) and type 2 diabetes (n=3726) during 1,696,503 person-years of follow-up. Pooled RRs with 95% CIs were estimated for smoking, and ORs for snus use (case-control data only). The interaction was assessed by attributable proportion (AP) due to interaction. A two-sample Mendelian randomisation (MR) study on smoking and LADA/type 2 diabetes was conducted based on summary statistics from genome-wide association studies. RESULTS: Smoking (RRpooled 1.30 [95% CI 1.06, 1.59] for current vs never) and snus use (OR 1.97 [95% CI 1.20, 3.24] for ≥15 box-years vs never use) were associated with an increased risk of LADA. Corresponding estimates for type 2 diabetes were 1.38 (95% CI 1.28, 1.49) and 1.92 (95% CI 1.27, 2.90), respectively. There was interaction between smoking and HLA high-risk genotypes (AP 0.27 [95% CI 0.01, 0.53]) in relation to LADA. The positive association between smoking and LADA/type 2 diabetes was confirmed by the MR study. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Our findings suggest that tobacco use increases the risk of LADA and that smoking acts synergistically with genetic susceptibility in the promotion of LADA. DATA AVAILABILITY: Analysis codes are shared through GitHub ( https://github.com/jeseds/Smoking-use-of-smokeless-tobacco-HLA-genotypes-and-incidence-of-LADA ).

Undiagnosed diabetes: Prevalence and cardiovascular risk profile in a population-based study of 52,856 individuals. The HUNT Study, Norway.

AIMS: We investigated the current extent of undiagnosed diabetes and prediabetes and their associated cardiovascular risk profile in a population-based study. METHODS: All residents aged ≥20 years in the Nord-Trøndelag region, Norway, were invited to the HUNT4 Survey in 2017-2019, and 54% attended. Diagnosed diabetes was self-reported, and in those reporting no diabetes HbA1c was used to classify undiagnosed diabetes (≥48 mmol/mol [6.5%]) and prediabetes (39-47 mmol/mol [5.7%-6.4%]). We estimated the age- and sex-standardized prevalence of these conditions and their age- and sex-adjusted associations with other cardiovascular risk factors. RESULTS: Among 52,856 participants, the prevalence of diabetes was 6.0% (95% CI 5.8, 6.2), of which 11.1% were previously undiagnosed (95% CI 10.1, 12.2). The prevalence of prediabetes was 6.4% (95% CI 6.2, 6.6). Among participants with undiagnosed diabetes, 58% had HbA1c of 48-53 mmol/mol (6.5%-7.0%), and only 14% (i.e., 0.1% of the total study population) had HbA1c >64 mmol/mol (8.0%). Compared with normoglycaemic participants, those with undiagnosed diabetes or prediabetes had higher body mass index, waist circumference, systolic blood pressure, triglycerides and C-reactive protein but lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (all p < 0.001). Participants with undiagnosed diabetes had less favourable values for every measured risk factor compared with those with diagnosed diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: The low prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes suggests that the current case-finding-based diagnostic practice is well-functioning. Few participants with undiagnosed diabetes had very high HbA1c levels indicating severe hyperglycaemia. Nonetheless, participants with undiagnosed diabetes had a poorer cardiovascular risk profile compared with participants with known or no diabetes.

Low C-peptide together with a high glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibody level predicts progression to insulin dependence in latent autoimmune diabetes in adults: The HUNT study.

AIM: To search for risk factors that could predict progression in latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA) and compare them with those for type 2 diabetes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This study included 175 participants with LADA (autoantibody positive, without insulin treatment ≥1 year after diagnosis) and 2331 participants with type 2 diabetes (autoantibody negative, without insulin treatment ≥1 year after diagnosis) from the HUNT2 and HUNT3 surveys. We used Cox regression models and receiver operating characteristic curve analysis to identify predictive factors for progression to insulin dependency within 10 years. RESULTS: Low C-peptide levels (<0.3 nmol/L) predicted progression to insulin dependency within 10 years in both LADA (hazard ratio [HR] 6.40 [95% CI, 2.02-20.3]) and type 2 diabetes (HR 5.01 [95% CI, 3.53-7.10]). In addition, a high glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibody (GADA) level (HR 5.37 [95% CI, 1.17-24.6]) predicted progression in LADA. Together, these two factors had a discriminatory power between non-progressors and progressors of area under the curve (AUC) of 0.86 (95% CI, 0.80-0.93). In type 2 diabetes, younger age at diagnosis (<50 years: HR 2.83 [95% CI, 1.56-5.15]; 50-69 years: HR 2.11 [95% CI, 1.19-3.74]), high HbA1c levels (≥53 mmol/mol, HR 2.44 [95% CI, 1.72-3.46]), central obesity (HR 1.65 [95% CI, 1.06-2.55]) and a body mass index of more than 30 kg/m2 (HR 1.73 [95% CI, 1.23-2.41]) were independent predictors. Together with C-peptide they reached an AUC of 0.79 (95% CI, 0.76-0.82). CONCLUSION: Factors predicting progression to insulin dependence are partly similar and partly dissimilar between LADA and type 2 diabetes. A constellation of low C-peptide and high GADA levels identifies LADA patients who are probable to progress to insulin dependence.

Incidence of LADA and Type 2 Diabetes in Relation to Tobacco Use and Genetic Susceptibility to Type 2 Diabetes and Related Traits: Findings From a Swedish Case-Control Study and the Norwegian HUNT Study.

OBJECTIVE: Smoking and Swedish smokeless tobacco (snus) are associated with latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA) and type 2 diabetes (T2D). Our aim was to investigate whether genetic susceptibility to T2D, insulin resistance (IR), and insulin secretion (IS) aggravate these associations. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We used data from two population-based Scandinavian studies with case subjects with LADA (n = 839) and T2D (n = 5,771), matched control subjects (n = 3,068), and 1,696,503 person-years at risk. Pooled, multivariate relative risks (RR) with 95% CI were estimated for smoking/genetic risk scores (T2D-GRS, IS-GRS, and IR-GRS), and ORs for snus or tobacco/GRS (case-control data). We estimated additive (proportion attributable to interaction [AP]) and multiplicative interaction between tobacco use and GRS. RESULTS: The RR of LADA was elevated in high IR-GRS heavy smokers (≥15 pack-years; RR 2.01 [CI 1.30, 3.10]) and tobacco users (≥15 box/pack-years; RR 2.59 [CI 1.54, 4.35]) compared with low IR-GRS individuals without heavy use, with evidence of additive (AP 0.67 [CI 0.46, 0.89]; AP 0.52 [CI 0.21, 0.83]) and multiplicative (P = 0.003; P = 0.034) interaction. In heavy users, there was additive interaction between T2D-GRS and smoking, snus, and total tobacco use. The excess risk conferred by tobacco use did not differ across GRS categories in T2D. CONCLUSIONS: Tobacco use may confer a higher risk of LADA in individuals with genetic susceptibility to T2D and insulin resistance, whereas genetic susceptibility does not seem to influence the increased T2D incidence associated with tobacco use.

Interaction Between Overweight and Genotypes of HLA, TCF7L2, and FTO in Relation to the Risk of Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults and Type 2 Diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: We investigated potential interactions between body mass index (BMI) and genotypes of human leukocyte antigen (HLA), TCF7L2-rs7903146, and FTO-rs9939609 in relation to the risk of latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA) and type 2 diabetes. METHODS: We pooled data from two population-based studies: (i) a Swedish study with incident cases of LADA [positive for glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies (GADA); n = 394) and type 2 diabetes (negative for GADA; n = 1290) and matched controls without diabetes (n = 2656) and (ii) a prospective Norwegian study that included incident cases of LADA (n = 131) and type 2 diabetes (n = 1901) and 886,120 person-years of follow-up. Analyses were adjusted for age, sex, physical activity, and smoking. Interaction between overweight (BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2) and HLA/TCF7L2/FTO high-risk genotypes was assessed by attributable proportion due to interaction (AP). RESULTS: The combination of overweight and high-risk genotypes of HLA, TCF7L2, and FTO was associated with pooled relative risk (RRpooled) of 7.59 (95% CI, 5.27 to 10.93), 2.65 (95% CI, 1.97 to 3.56), and 2.21 (95% CI, 1.60 to 3.07), respectively, for LADA, compared with normal-weight individuals with low/intermediate genetic risk. There was a significant interaction between overweight and HLA (AP, 0.29; 95% CI, 0.10 to 0.47), TCF7L2 (AP, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.09 to 0.52), and FTO (AP, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.15 to 0.61). The highest risk of LADA was seen in overweight individuals homozygous for the DR4 genotype [RR, 26.76 (95% CI, 15.42 to 46.43); AP, 0.58 (95% CI, 0.32 to 0.83) (Swedish data)]. Overweight and TCF7L2 also significantly interacted in relation to type 2 diabetes (AP, 0.26; 95% CI, 0.19 to 0.33), but no interaction was observed with high-risk genotypes of HLA or FTO. CONCLUSIONS: Overweight interacts with HLA high-risk genotypes but also with genes associated with type 2 diabetes in the promotion of LADA.