Exploring Cuneanes as Potential Benzene Isosteres and Energetic Materials: Scope and Mechanistic Investigations into Regioselective Rearrangements from Cubanes.

Cuneane is a strained hydrocarbon that can be accessed via metal-catalyzed isomerization of cubane. The carbon atoms of cuneane define a polyhedron of the C2v point group with six faces─two triangular, two quadrilateral, and two pentagonal. The rigidity, strain, and unique exit vectors of the cuneane skeleton make it a potential scaffold of interest for the synthesis of functional small molecules and materials. However, the limited previous synthetic efforts toward cuneanes have focused on monosubstituted or redundantly substituted systems such as permethylated, perfluorinated, and bis(hydroxymethylated) cuneanes. Such compounds, particularly rotationally symmetric redundantly substituted cuneanes, have limited potential as building blocks for the synthesis of complex molecules. Reliable, predictable, and selective syntheses of polysubstituted cuneanes bearing more complex substitution patterns would facilitate the study of this ring system in myriad applications. Herein, we report the regioselective, AgI-catalyzed isomerization of asymmetrically 1,4-disubstituted cubanes to cuneanes. In-depth DFT calculations provide a charge-controlled regioselectivity model, and direct dynamics simulations indicate that the nonclassical carbocation invoked is short-lived and dynamic effects augment the charge model.

Photochemical Strategies Enable the Synthesis of Tunable Azetidine-Based Energetic Materials.

Despite their favorable properties, azetidines are often overlooked as lead compounds across multiple industries. This is often attributed to the challenging synthesis of densely functionalized azetidines in an efficient manner. In this work, we report the scalable synthesis and characterization of seven azetidines with varying regio- and stereochemistry and their application as novel azetidine-based energetic materials, enabled by the visible-light-mediated aza Paternò-Büchi reaction. The performance and stark differences in the physical properties of these new compounds make them excellent potential candidates as novel solid melt-castable explosive materials, as well as potential liquid propellant plasticizers. This work highlights the scalability and utility of the visible-light aza Paternò-Büchi reaction and demonstrates the impact of stereochemical considerations on the physical properties of azetidine-based energetics. Considering the versatility and efficiency of the presented synthetic strategies, we expect that this work will guide the development of new azetidine-based materials in the energetics space as well as other industries.

Microscopic Studies and Application of a Stabilized Ceric Ammonium Nitrate Oxidizer in Environmentally Friendly Pyrotechnic Strobes.

The growing reservations against the use of any kind of chlorine source in pyrotechnic items revolutionize the predominantly empirical development of strobe formulations in two ways. First, a conventionally applied ammonium perchlorate oxidizer needs to be replaced. Second, visible light emissions should no longer be generated by metastable monochloride species. Moreover, until now, toxic substances such as potassium dichromate have been added in order to achieve a more pronounced strobe effect. This work evaluates the potential of stearic acid-treated ceric ammonium nitrate to serve as an oxidizing agent in next-generation strobe compositions. For this purpose, its microscopic structure, energetic properties, and stability under ambient conditions were assessed. A two-component mixture with a magnesium-aluminum alloy was investigated, which should allow for the introduction of copper-based colorants. This potentially paves the way for the first environmentally friendly blue strobe formulations.

Tetrazole Azasydnone (C2 N7 O2 H) And Its Salts: High-Performing Zwitterionic Energetic Materials Containing A Unique Explosophore.

This work reports the first compound containing both a tetrazole and an azasydnone ring, a unique energetic material. Several energetic salts of the tetrazole azasydnone were synthesized and characterized, leading to the creation of new secondary and primary explosives. Molecular structures are confirmed by 1 H and 13 C NMR, IR spectroscopy, and X-ray crystallographic analysis. The high heats of formation, fast detonation velocities, and straight-forward synthesis of energetic azasydnones should capture the attention of future energetics research.

Impact of Stereo- and Regiochemistry on Energetic Materials.

The synthesis, physical properties, and calculated performances of six stereo- and regioisomeric cyclobutane nitric ester materials are described. While the calculated performances of these isomers, as expected, were similar, their physical properties were found to be extremely different. By alteration of the stereo- and regiochemistry, complete tunability in the form of low- or high-melting solids, stand-alone melt-castable explosives, melt-castable explosive eutectic compounds, and liquid propellant materials was obtained. This demonstrates that theoretical calculations should not be the main factor in driving the design of new materials and that stereo- and regiochemistry matter in the design of compounds of potential relevance to energetic formulators.

A Strontium- and Chlorine-Free Pyrotechnic Illuminant of High Color Purity.

The development of a red-light-emitting pyrotechnic illuminant has garnered interest from the pyrotechnics community owing to potential regulations by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) regarding the use of strontium and chlorinated organic materials. To address these environmental regulatory concerns, the development of lithium-based red-light-emitting pyrotechnic compositions of high purity and color quality is described. These formulations do not contain strontium or chlorinated organic materials. Rather, the disclosed formulations are based on a non-hygroscopic dilithium nitrogen-rich salt that serves as both oxidizer and red colorant. These formulations are likely to draw interest from the civilian fireworks and military pyrotechnics communities for further development as they both have a vested interest in the development of environmentally conscious formulations.

Chlorine-Free Red-Burning Pyrotechnics.

The development of a red, chlorine-free pyrotechnic illuminant of high luminosity and spectral purity was investigated. Red-light emission based solely on transient SrOH(g) has been achieved by using either 5-amino-1H-tetrazole or hexamine to deoxidize the combustion flame of a Mg/Sr(NO3 )2 /Epon-binder composition and reduce the amount of both condensed and gaseous SrO, which emits undesirable orange-red light. The new formulations were found to possess high thermal onset temperatures. Avoiding chlorine in these formulations eliminates the risk of the formation of PCBs, PCDDs, and PCDFs. This finding, hence, will have a great impact on both military pyrotechnics and commercial firework sectors.

High-performing red-light-emitting pyrotechnic illuminants through the use of perchlorate-free materials.

The development of perchlorate-free M662 40 mm illuminating pyrotechnic compositions is described. On the bases of cost, performance, and sensitivity, potassium periodate was determined to be most effective potassium perchlorate replacement in the compositions tested. The optimal periodate-based composition exceeded the performance of the perchlorate-containing control, exhibited low sensitivity values to impact, friction, and electrostatic discharge, and had high thermal onset temperatures.

Chlorine-free pyrotechnics: copper(I) iodide as a "green" blue-light emitter.

The generation of blue-light-emitting pyrotechnic formulations without the use of chlorine-containing compounds is reported. Suitable blue-light emission has been achieved through the generation of molecular emitting copper(I) iodide. The most optimal copper(I) iodide based blue-light-emitting formulation was found to have performances exceeding those of chlorine-containing compositions, and was found to be insensitive to various ignition stimuli.

High-nitrogen-based pyrotechnics: perchlorate-free red- and green-light illuminants based on 5-aminotetrazole.

Prototype testing of perchlorate-free hand-held signal illuminants for the US Army's M126 A1 red-star and M195 green-star parachute illuminants are described. Although previous perchlorate-free variants for these items have been developed based on high-nitrogen compounds that are not readily available, the new formulations consist of anhydrous 5-aminotetrazole as the suitable perchlorate replacement. Compared to the perchlorate-containing control, the disclosed illuminants exhibited excellent stabilities toward various ignition stimuli and had excellent pyrotechnic performance. The illuminants are important from both military and civil fireworks perspectives, as the perchlorate-free nature of the illuminants adequately address environmental concerns associated with perchlorate-containing red- and green-light-emitting illuminants.

High-nitrogen-based pyrotechnics: longer- and brighter-burning, perchlorate-free, red-light illuminants for military and civilian applications.

The full-up prototype testing of perchlorate-free, hand-held, signal illuminants for the US Army's M126A1 red star parachute hand-held signal is described. Compared to the perchlorate-containing control, the disclosed illuminants yielded excellent stabilities toward various ignition stimuli while offering superior pyrotechnic performance. Militarily, the illuminants provided further evidence that development of smaller hand-held signal items in an environmentally conscious way is a realistic and obtainable goal. The results are also important from the perspective of civilian fireworks, as the development of brighter, longer-burning, and environmentally compatible red-light-emitting pyrotechnics is now possible.

Periodate salts as pyrotechnic oxidizers: development of barium- and perchlorate-free incendiary formulations.

In a flash: pyrotechnic incendiary formulations with good stabilities toward various ignition stimuli have been developed without the need for barium or perchlorate oxidizers. KIO(4) and NaIO(4) were introduced as pyrotechnic oxidizers and exhibited excellent pyrotechnic performance. The periodate salts may garner widespread use in military and civilian fireworks because of their low hygroscopicities and high chemical reactivities.

Synthesis and Characterization of the Potential Energetic Propellant Plasticizer 3-Nitratoethyl-N-nitramino-5-nitratomethyl Isoxazole.

The synthesis of 3-(nitratoethyl-N-nitramino)-5-(nitratomethyl) isoxazole (C6 H7 N5 O9 , 1) is presented, and its energetic properties were ascertained and analyzed for energetic applications potential. 1 was found to be a solid without melting behavior, begins to decompose at 140 °C, and has a thermal onset decomposition temperature of 171.5 °C. 1 was synthesized in 5 steps from glyoxylic acid, and was found to exhibit acceptable sensitivities to impact, friction, and electrostatic discharge. The presence of the nitratoethyl nitramino (NENA) moiety, coupled with the high density (1.71 g cm-3 ) and superior calculated specific impulse (247.6 s) over the commonly employed gun propellant n-butyl NENA (density=1.22 g cm-3 , specific impulse=221 s), makes 1 a potential energetic plasticizer for next generation gun and rocket propellants. In addition, a modified procedure for the synthesis of dibromoformaldoxime (DBFO) was developed to provide this material in respectable yields on one mole scale. The safety considerations of DBFO are also highlighted, in which this compound sublimes, and must be handled with care, as it will cause burns upon contact with the skin.

A Short Review of Nitric Esters and Their Role in Energetic Materials.

A review of energetic materials based on the nitric ester functionality is presented. Examined are materials that are classified as primary explosives, pressable secondary explosives, melt-castable secondary explosives, and rocket- and gun-propellant materials. Disclosed are the molecular structures, physical properties, performances, and sensitivities of the most important legacy nitric esters, as well as the relevant new materials developed within the past several years. Where necessary, discussions of the synthetic protocols to synthesize these materials are also presented.

Synthesis and Characterization of the Potential Melt-Castable Explosive 3-(1,2,4-Oxadiazolyl)-5-Nitratomethyl Isoxazole.

The synthesis of 3-(1,2,4-oxadiazolyl)-5-nitratomethyl isoxazole (C6 H4 N4 O5 ), its physical properties, and its theoretical performances are described. This energetic material was found to have a melting point range of 76.6-79.2 °C, and a thermal onset decomposition temperature of 184.5 °C. These thermal features put this material into the standalone melt-castable explosive class. The material was found to have TNT performance, and was found to be insensitive to impact, friction, and electrostatic discharge, despite having a nitric ester functionality. A critical reaction in making this molecule was the desymmetrization of diaminoglyoxime. The optimization of this transformation is described. Previous reports of this desymmetrization were found to be inaccurate, as the desymmetrization reaction produces a co-crystal of mono- and bi-1,2,4-oxadiazole products.

Bis(Nitroxymethylisoxazolyl) Furoxan: A Promising Standalone Melt-Castable Explosive.

The synthesis and crystal structure of the heterocyclic explosive bis(nitroxymethylisoxazolyl) furoxan, C10 H6 N6 O10 , are described. In addition, we report its physical properties and theoretical performance. This material was found to exhibit standalone melt-castable explosive properties, with a melting point of 89.8 °C and an onset decomposition temperature of 193.8 °C. Bis(nitroxymethylisoxazolyl) furoxan features an insensitive behavior to impact, friction, and electrostatic discharge, with a calculated detonation pressure about 25 % higher than the state-of-the-art melt-castable explosive TNT.

Bis(1,2,4-oxadiazolyl) Furoxan: A Promising Melt-Castable Eutectic Material of Low Sensitivity.

A scalable synthesis of bis(1,2,4-oxadiazoyl) furoxan, C6 H2 N6 O4 , its physical properties, and its theoretical performance values are described. Previous attempts to synthesize this compound required expensive reagents, and/or time-consuming synthesis processes and low overall yields. In addition to disclosing a streamlined synthesis of bis(1,2,4-oxadiazolyl) furoxan, we report its molecular configuration and crystal structure, as well as its correct melting point. Bis(1,2,4-oxadiazolyl) furoxan exhibits a very insensitive behavior to impact, friction, and electrostatic discharge, with a calculated detonation pressure 20 % higher than that of TNT. Given its physical properties and theoretical performance values, this material can be classified as a promising ingredient in the development of melt-castable eutectic technology.

Flare or strobe: a tunable chlorine-free pyrotechnic system based on lithium nitrate.

The development of a red, chlorine-/strontium-free pyrotechnic composition which serves as either a strobe or a flare is reported. The observed strobing behaviour of a red-light emitting composition of Mg/LiNO3/hexamine/binder was investigated. Additives like 5-amino-1H-tetrazole and nitrocellulose were used to increase the strobing frequency and achieve constant burning.

Crystal structures of 5,5'-bis(-hydroxy-methyl)-3,3'-biisoxazole and 4,4',5,5'-tetrakis-(hydroxy-methyl)-3,3'-biisoxazole.

The mol-ecular structure of 5,5'-bis(-hydroxy-methyl)-3,3'-biisoxazole, C8H8N2O4 (1), is composed of two trans planar isoxazole rings [r.m.s deviation = 0.006 (1) Å], each connected with a methyl hydroxyl group. Similarly, the structure of 4,4',5,5'-tetrakis-(hydroxy-methyl)-3,3'-biisoxazole, C10H12N2O6 (2), is composed of two planar isoxazole rings [r.m.s. deviation = 0.002 (1) Å], but with four hydroxymethyl groups as substituents. Both mol-ecules sit on a center of inversion, thus Z' = 0.5. The crystal structures are stabilized by networks of O-H⋯N [for (1)] and O-H⋯O hydrogen-bonding inter-actions [for (2)], giving rise to corrugated supra-molecular planes. The isoxazole rings are packed in a slip-stacked fashion, with centroid-to-centroid distances of 4.0652 (1) Šfor (1) (along the b-axis direction) and of 4.5379 (Å) for (2) (along the a-axis direction).

Crystal structure of 3,3'-biisoxazole-5,5'-bis(methyl-ene) dinitrate (BIDN).

The mol-ecular structure of the title energetic compound, C8H6N4O8, is composed of two planar isoxazole rings and two near planar alkyl-nitrate groups (r.m.s deviation = 0.006 Å). In the crystal, the mol-ecule sits on an inversion center, thus Z' = 0.5. The dihedral angle between the isoxazole ring and the nitrate group is 69.58 (8)°. van der Waals contacts dominate the inter-molecular inter-actions. Inversion-related rings are in close slip-stacked proximity, with an inter-planar separation of 3.101 (3) Š[centroid-centroid distance = 3.701 (3) Å]. The measured and calculated densities are in good agreement (1.585 versus 1.610 Mg m-3).