Mental health and resilience during the coronavirus pandemic: A machine learning approach.

OBJECTIVE: This study explored risk and resilience factors of mental health functioning during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic. METHODS: A sample of 467 adults (M age = 33.14, 63.6% female) reported on mental health (depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], and somatic symptoms), demands and impacts of COVID-19, resources (e.g., social support, health care access), demographics, and psychosocial resilience factors. RESULTS: Depression, anxiety, and PTSD rates were 44%, 36%, and 23%, respectively. Supervised machine learning models identified psychosocial factors as the primary significant predictors across outcomes. Greater trauma coping self-efficacy and forward-focused coping, but not trauma-focused coping, were associated with better mental health. When accounting for psychosocial resilience factors, few external resources and demographic variables emerged as significant predictors. CONCLUSION: With ongoing stressors and traumas, employing coping strategies that emphasize distraction over trauma processing may be warranted. Clinical and community outreach efforts should target trauma coping self-efficacy to bolster resilience during a pandemic.

Social engagement, self-efficacy, and posttraumatic stress symptoms across 6 months of psychotherapy.

OBJECTIVE: The current study was conducted in a naturalistic treatment setting to examine whether and how perceptions about social engagement, trauma coping self-efficacy, and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTS) influence one another across 6 months of psychotherapy for trauma survivors. METHOD: The sample included 183 clients who reported exposure to traumatic events and significant PTS (PCL-5 ≥ 33). Participants (Mage = 37.8, 53.6% female) completed surveys at intake, 3 months, and 6 months into treatment. A cross-lagged panel analysis was used to test the relationships among perceived social engagement, coping self-efficacy, and PTS across three assessment points. RESULTS: PTS at 3-months was a mediator in the relationship between intake perceived social engagement and 6-month coping self-efficacy and between intake perceived social engagement and 6-month perceived social engagement. CONCLUSIONS: PTS several months into treatment may serve as a mechanism between intake perceived social engagement and functional outcomes such as coping self-efficacy.

Predictors of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Anxiety, and Depression Symptoms in Survivors of Torture Living in the United States.

A constellation of psychosocial factors contributes to the complex trauma symptoms that survivors of torture may experience. We examined the roles of pretrauma, peritrauma, and postmigration factors as predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety in a sample of 101 culturally heterogeneous torture survivors residing in the United States. Predictors included demographic variables (sex, education, marital status), peritrauma torture type variables generated by principal components analysis (PCA), and postmigration variables (employment status, legal immigration status, and family separation). Of the torture factors identified through PCA (torture inflicted on the self and torture inflicted on family members), torture inflicted on the self significantly predicted anxiety. Undocumented legal status and female sex were related to poorer psychological outcomes. Results highlight the importance of considering postmigration factors, specifically legal status, rather than elements of the torture experience itself, in the delivery of trauma-informed psychological interventions and policy development for survivors of torture.

Somatic burden and perceived cognitive problems in trauma-exposed adults with posttraumatic stress symptoms or pain.

OBJECTIVE: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with somatic and cognitive changes, which may be magnified when accompanied by persistent pain. The mechanisms of somatic sensation processing may extend to cognitive symptoms, revealing a potential generalization of impairment across cognitive and somatic domains in PTSD. We hypothesized that somatic burden would mediate relationships between PTSD, pain, and perceived cognitive impairment. METHODS: Two samples-360 trauma-exposed college students and 268 mechanical Turk users-completed self-report measures. RESULTS: Both samples revealed similar findings. There was a significant indirect effect of PTSD and pain on perceived cognitive problems through somatic burden. There remained a direct effect of PTSD symptoms. These findings indicate that in trauma-exposed samples with pain, somatic burden rather than pain severity accounts for perceived cognitive problems. CONCLUSION: High somatic burden may reflect an underlying appraisal about somatic cues, which extend in part to interpretation of cognitive cues.

The Association Between PTSD and Functional Outcome Is Mediated by Perception of Cognitive Problems Rather Than Objective Neuropsychological Test Performance.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been consistently linked to poorer functional outcomes, including quality of life, health problems, and social and occupational functioning. Less is known about the potential mechanisms by which PTSD leads to poorer functional outcomes. We hypothesized that neurocognitive functioning and perception of cognitive problems would both mediate the relationship between PTSD diagnosis and functioning. In a sample of 140 veterans of the recent wars and conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan, we assessed PTSD symptoms, history of traumatic brain injury (TBI), depression, self-report measures of quality of life, social and occupational functioning, and reintegration to civilian life, as well as perception of cognitive problems. Veterans also completed a comprehensive neuropsychological battery of tests. Structural equation modeling revealed that perception of cognitive problems, but not objective neuropsychological performance, mediated the relationship between PTSD diagnosis and functional outcomes after controlling for TBI, depression, education, and a premorbid IQ estimate, b = -6.29, 95% bias-corrected bootstrapped confidence interval [-11.03, -2.88], showing a large effect size. These results highlight the importance of addressing appraisals of posttrauma cognitive functioning in treatment as a means of improving functional outcomes.

Maternal PTSD and Children's Adjustment: Parenting Stress and Emotional Availability as Proposed Mediators.

OBJECTIVES: Maternal posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a risk factor for negative child adjustment, but it is unclear whether this association is direct (e.g., a mother's PTSD symptoms are observed, learned, and internalized by children which results in behavioral and emotional problems) or indirect, through parent-child relationship difficulties or parenting stress. We hypothesized that parenting stress and maternal emotional availability would exhibit indirect effects on relationships between maternal PTSD and children's functioning. METHOD: Participants were 52 trauma-exposed mothers and their children (aged 7-12 years). Mothers completed measures of PTSD and parenting stress and reported on their children's functioning. Emotional availability was assessed through observer-rated mother-child interactions. RESULTS: Emotional availability was not related to PTSD or child outcomes. Parenting stress had a substantial indirect effect on the relationships between maternal PTSD and child emotion regulation, internalizing, and externalizing behaviors. CONCLUSIONS: Results highlight the need to target parenting stress in interventions with trauma-exposed families.

Trauma Type and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder as Predictors of Parenting Stress in Trauma-Exposed Mothers.

Trauma exposure is associated with various parenting difficulties, but few studies have examined relationships between trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and parenting stress. Parenting stress is an important facet of parenting and mediates the relationship between parental trauma exposure and negative child outcomes (Owen, Thompson, & Kaslow, 2006). We examined trauma type (child maltreatment, intimate partner violence, community violence, and non-interpersonal traumas) and PTSD symptoms as predictors of parenting stress in a sample of 52 trauma-exposed mothers. Community violence exposure and PTSD symptom severity accounted for significant variance in parenting stress. Further analyses revealed that emotional numbing was the only PTSD symptom cluster accounting for variance in parenting stress scores. Results highlight the importance of addressing community violence exposure and emotion regulation difficulties with trauma-exposed mothers.

Ongoing traumatic stress during a global pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: The COVID-19 pandemic has been conceptualized as a potentially traumatic event, although heterogeneity in experience (e.g., isolation) and in type and severity of traumatic stress response (e.g., hygiene hypervigilance) query the applicability of the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnostic construct. Parallels may be drawn to chronic illness and continuous traumatic situations (CTS) literature, which suggests unique symptom presentations that may occur during cumulative, ongoing traumas. METHOD: Eighty-four adults completed the PTSD Checklist with appended questions evaluating pandemic index events, temporality of intrusive symptoms, self-appraised abnormality, and context dependence of symptoms. Using exploratory latent profile analysis, we modeled the latent structure of traumatic stress response to COVID-19 in order to evaluate possible nuanced patterns of symptoms differentiating PTSD from a transient ongoing trauma response. RESULTS: Two profiles broadly delineated by severity across all variables emerged, suggesting the framework of PTSD is apt when applied to COVID-19. However, secondary analyses revealed subtle signals supporting chronic illness and CTS frameworks. Specifically, some participants who met criteria for PTSD did not endorse index events meeting Criterion A, most endorsed intrusive symptoms related to a present or future threat (versus a past trauma), and 30% reported their symptoms to be context dependent. CONCLUSION: Results highlight a need for improved assessment and opportunities for treatment modification. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Post-traumatic stress disorder and declarative memory functioning: a review.

Declarative memory dysfunction is associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This paper reviews this literature and presents two frameworks to explain the nature of this dysfunction: that memory deficits are a product of neurobiological abnormalities caused by PTSD and/or that pre-existing memory deficits serve as a risk factor for the development of PTSD following trauma exposure. Brain regions implicated in declarative memory deficits include the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, and imaging and biochemistry studies as they relate to memory dysfunction are described. Prospective and twin studies provide support for a risk factor model.

The power of appraisals in predicting PTSD symptom improvement following cognitive rehabilitation: A randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Patients with PTSD often voice concern over their perceived change in cognitive functioning. However, these negative appraisals do not always align with objective neuropsychological performance, yet are strongly predictive of PTSD symptom severity and self-reported functional impairment. METHODS: The present study involves a secondary analysis examining the role of appraisals of a subsample of 81 adults with full or subthreshold PTSD on treatment outcomes in a randomized controlled trial investigating the effectiveness of a cognitive rehabilitation treatment, Strategic Memory and Reasoning Training (n = 38), compared to a psychoeducation control arm, the Brain Health Workshop (n = 43). Neither condition addressed PTSD symptoms, focusing instead on cognitive skills training and psychoeducation about the brain. RESULTS: Intent-to-treat models showed statistically significant improvements for both groups on composite scores of executive functioning and memory. Additionally, both groups experienced clinically significant reductions in PTSD symptoms (assessed via the Clinician-Administered PTSD Interview) and the SMART group showed fewer negative appraisals about cognitive functioning following training. Change in appraisals of cognitive functioning was associated with change in PTSD as well as change in quality of life, with no differential associations based on group status. In contrast, neurocognitive test score changes were not associated with change in symptoms or functional outcomes. LIMITATIONS: We did not collect data on other appraisals (e.g., self-efficacy), which could have further elucidated pathways of change. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that interventions that do not directly target PTSD symptoms can lead to PTSD symptom change via change in appraisals of functioning.

Is Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk) a comparable recruitment source for trauma studies?

OBJECTIVE: Trauma researchers have recently begun using Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk) as a data collection platform that is both time- and cost-efficient. Research is needed to determine the utility, generalizability, and validity of MTurk as a recruitment source for trauma-exposed samples. METHOD: Data were collected from 266 trauma-exposed MTurk participants on several clinical and psychological constructs relevant to trauma research. The mean scores, prevalence rates, and correlation strengths of the MTurk sample were compared to those reported in previously published studies of undergraduate, community, and treatment-seeking samples. RESULTS: Findings indicated that prevalence rates of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression were not significantly different from comparison samples, but prevalence rates of generalized anxiety were significantly higher than that of a community sample. The MTurk sample showed significantly lower mean scores of PTSD, depression, and generalized anxiety symptoms than all comparison samples. Correlations were examined to determine whether established relationships between common trauma-related constructs were correlated for MTurk participants as they were in other samples. Correlations between PTSD symptom severity, posttraumatic cognitions (PTCs), and trauma coping self-efficacy (CSE-T) in the MTurk sample were not significantly different from the correlations observed in all comparison samples. Finally, MTurk participants who met criteria for probable PTSD scored significantly higher on measures of depression, generalized anxiety, and PTCs, and lower on CSE-T, than those without probable PTSD. CONCLUSIONS: Future trauma researchers utilizing MTurk should consider potential similarities and differences between MTurk samples and community, clinical, and undergraduate samples when interpreting the generalizability of findings. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Cognitive Training for Mild Traumatic Brain Injury and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.

Although there is evidence of mild cognitive impairments for many individuals with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), little research evaluating the effectiveness of cognitive training interventions has been conducted. This randomized controlled trial examined the effectiveness of a 9-h group cognitive training targeting higher-order functions, Strategic Memory Advanced Reasoning Training (SMART), compared to a 9-h psychoeducational control group in improving neurocognitive functioning in adults with mTBI and PTSD. A sample of 124 adults with histories of mild TBI (n = 117) and/or current diagnoses of PTSD (n = 84) were randomized into SMART (n = 66) or Brain Health Workshop (BHW; n = 58) and assessed at three time points: baseline, following training, and 6 months later. Participants completed a battery of neurocognitive tests, including a test of gist reasoning (a function directly targeted by SMART) as well as tests of verbal, visual, and working memory and executive functioning, functions commonly found to be mildly impaired in mTBI and PTSD. The two groups were compared on trajectories of change over time using linear mixed-effects models with restricted maximum likelihood (LMM). Contrary to our hypothesis that SMART would result in superior improvements compared to BHW, both groups displayed statistically and clinically significant improvements on measures of memory, executive functioning, and gist reasoning. Over 60% of the sample showed clinically significant improvements, indicating that gains can be found through psychoeducation alone. A longer SMART protocol may be warranted for clinical samples in order to observe gains over the comparison group.

Predeployment neurocognitive functioning predicts postdeployment posttraumatic stress in Army personnel.

OBJECTIVE: The Fort Campbell Cohort study was designed to assess predeployment biological and behavioral markers and build predictive models to identify risk and resilience for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) following deployment. This article addresses neurocognitive functioning variables as potential prospective predictors. METHOD: In a sample of 403 soldiers, we examined whether PTSD symptom severity (using the PTSD Checklist) as well as posttraumatic stress trajectories could be prospectively predicted by measures of executive functioning (using two web-based tasks from WebNeuro) assessed predeployment. RESULTS: Controlling for age, gender, education, prior number of deployments, childhood trauma exposure, and PTSD symptom severity at Phase 1, linear regression models revealed that predeployment sustained attention and inhibitory control performance were significantly associated with postdeployment PTSD symptom severity. We also identified two posttraumatic stress trajectories utilizing latent growth mixture models. The "resilient" group consisted of 90.9% of the soldiers who exhibited stable low levels of PTSD symptoms from pre- to postdeployment. The "increasing" group consisted of 9.1% of the soldiers, who exhibited an increase in PTSD symptoms following deployment, crossing a threshold for diagnosis based on PTSD Checklist scores. Logistic regression models predicting trajectory revealed a similar pattern of findings as the linear regression models, in which predeployment sustained attention (95% CI of odds ratio: 1.0109, 1.0558) and inhibitory control (95% CI: 1.0011, 1.0074) performance were significantly associated with postdeployment PTSD trajectory. CONCLUSIONS: These findings have clinical implications for understanding the pathogenesis of PTSD and building preventative programs for military personnel. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal effects of PTSD on memory functioning.

Numerous studies have demonstrated explicit and working memory deficits related to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), but few have addressed longitudinal changes in memory functioning. There is some evidence to suggest an interactive effect of PTSD and aging on verbal memory decline in Holocaust survivors (Yehuda et al., 2006). However, the longitudinal trajectory of neuropsychological functioning has not been investigated in Vietnam veterans, a younger but substantial population of aging trauma survivors. We administered tests of visual and verbal memory, and working memory to derive different dependent measures in veterans between the ages of 41 and 63, the majority of whom served in the Vietnam War. Twenty-five veterans with PTSD and 22 veterans without PTSD were assessed over two time points (mean age at follow-up = 54.0; mean inter-test interval = 34 months). The PTSD+ group, consisting of veterans with chronic, primarily combat-related PTSD, did not show a significant change in PTSD symptoms over time. Compared to veterans without PTSD, veterans with PTSD showed a greater decline in delayed facial recognition only, and this decline was extremely subtle.

The effects of respiratory sinus arrhythmia biofeedback on heart rate variability and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms: a pilot study.

Recent studies have found a significant association between PTSD and low heart rate variability (HRV), a biomarker of autonomic dysregulation. Research indicates that respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) biofeedback increases HRV while reducing related pathological symptoms. This controlled pilot study compared RSA biofeedback to progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) as adjunctive interventions for 38 persons with PTSD symptoms in a residential treatment facility for a substance use disorder. Both groups were assessed at pre-intervention and 4-week post-intervention. Group x time interactions revealed significantly greater reductions in depressive symptoms and increases in HRV indices for the RSA group. Both groups significantly reduced PTSD and insomnia symptoms and a statistical trend was observed for reduced substance craving for the RSA group. Increases in HRV were significantly associated with PTSD symptom reduction. Overall, these results provide preliminary support for the efficacy of RSA biofeedback in improving physiological and psychological health for individuals with PTSD.

Impulsivity, Painful and Provocative Events, and Suicide Intent: Testing the Interpersonal Theory of Suicide.

OBJECTIVE: The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide (IPTS; Joiner, 2005. Why People Die by Suicide. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press) hypothesizes that repeated exposure to painful and provocative events (PPE) increases capability for suicide (CS), therefore facilitating the development of suicidal intent, and that impulsive individuals are more likely to experience these painful and provocative events, creating an indirect relationship between impulsivity and CS. Research to date largely supports this hypothesis but has not translated this theory to actual suicidal intent. METHOD: The present study used data from the MacArthur Violence Risk Assessment Study to examine the relationship between PPE and intent, and the indirect relationship between impulsivity and intent among a sample of 245 recent suicide attempters, using the clinician-rated Suicide Intent Scale as an objective measure of intent. RESULTS: Results supported the hypothesized direct relationship between PPE and intent, and the indirect relationship between impulsivity and intent through PPE. There was no direct relationship between impulsivity and intent, suggesting that the relationship between impulsivity and intent occurs entirely through exposure to PPE. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that assessing exposure to painful and provocative events is critical in evaluating risk of suicide, and that impulsivity itself does not confer an increased risk of lethal or nearly lethal attempts.

Abnormal N-acetylaspartate in hippocampus and anterior cingulate in posttraumatic stress disorder.

Magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) studies suggest hippocampal abnormalities in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), whereas findings of volume deficits in the hippocampus, as revealed with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), have been inconsistent. Co-morbidities of PTSD, notably alcohol abuse, may have contributed to the inconsistency. The objective was to determine whether volumetric and metabolic abnormalities in the hippocampus and other brain regions are present in PTSD, independent of alcohol abuse. Four groups of subjects, PTSD patients with (n=28) and without (n=27) alcohol abuse and subjects negative for PTSD with (n=23) and without (n=26) alcohol abuse, were enrolled in this observational MRI and MRSI study of structural and metabolic brain abnormalities in PTSD. PTSD was associated with reduced N-acetylaspartate (NAA) in both the left and right hippocampus, though only when normalized to creatine levels in the absence of significant hippocampal volume reduction. Furthermore, PTSD was associated with reduced NAA in the right anterior cingulate cortex regardless of creatine. NAA appears to be a more sensitive marker for neuronal abnormality in PTSD than brain volume. The alteration in the anterior cingulate cortex in PTSD has implications for fear conditioning and extinction.

PTSD symptoms and perception of cognitive problems: The roles of posttraumatic cognitions and trauma coping self-efficacy.

OBJECTIVE: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with mild neurocognitive deficits, yet clients often complain of cognitive problems that exceed what their objective performance demonstrates. In addition, PTSD is associated with negative appraisals about the self, traumatic event, and one's ability to cope. This study examined posttraumatic cognitions as a moderator, and trauma coping self-efficacy as a mediator, of the relationship between PTSD symptoms and self-report of cognitive problems. METHOD: A sample of 268 trauma-exposed adults completed the PTSD Checklist for DSM-5, the Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory, the Trauma Coping Self-Efficacy Scale, the Cognitive Self-Report Questionnaire, and the Quality of Life Scale. RESULTS: Negative self-appraisals was a significant moderator in the relationship between PTSD symptoms and perception of cognitive problems (ß = -.252, p = .001). In participants with high levels of negative posttraumatic cognitions, perception of cognitive problems was high regardless of PTSD symptom level. In a mediator analysis, there was a significant indirect effect of trauma coping self-efficacy (b = .125, 95% CI [.088, .172]). Finally, there was evidence of moderated mediation, such that trauma coping self-efficacy was a mediator only when posttraumatic cognitions were low or average. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate that posttraumatic appraisals and coping self-efficacy play significant roles in perception of cognitive problems following trauma. Clinically, in patients for which there is a perception of cognitive impairment that is not borne out in neuropsychological testing, cognitive-behavioral therapy focused on altering negative self-perceptions and appraisals may be beneficial. (PsycINFO Database Record

No improvement of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms with guanfacine treatment.

OBJECTIVE: The authors report an 8-week, double-blind, randomized controlled trial of guanfacine versus placebo for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). METHOD: Veterans with chronic PTSD who were medication-free or receiving stable pharmacotherapy were randomly assigned to guanfacine (N=29) versus placebo (N=34). RESULTS: Guanfacine had no effect on PTSD symptoms, subjective sleep quality, or general mood disturbances. Guanfacine was associated with a number of side effects. CONCLUSIONS: These results do not support the use of alpha 2 agonists in veterans with chronic PTSD.

Neuropsychological functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder and alcohol abuse.

Studies have shown differences in neuropsychological functioning between groups with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and control participants. Because individuals with PTSD often have a history of comorbid alcohol abuse, the extent to which an alcohol confound is responsible for these differences remains a concern. The current study compares neuropsychological testing scores in 4 groups of veterans with and without PTSD (PTSD+ and PTSD-, respectively) and with and without a history of alcohol abuse (ETOH+ and ETOH-, respectively): n for PTSD+/ETOH- = 30, n for PTSD+/ETOH- = 37, n for PTSD-/ETOH+ = 30, and n for PTSD-/ETOH- = 31. Results showed that PTSD, when alcohol, educational level, vocabulary, and depression are controlled for, was associated with decreased verbal memory, attention, and processing speed performance. Alcohol abuse history was associated with decreased visual memory performance. By controlling for alcohol and depression, the authors can more conclusively demonstrate that verbal memory and attention differences are associated with PTSD.