Learning from COVID-19: government leaders' perspectives to improve emergency risk communication.

BACKGROUND: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic highlighted the challenges of effective emergency risk communication (ERC) to protect public health, including the difficulty in tackling the spread of inaccurate information. This study aimed to understand those challenges and potential solutions by interviewing leading government spokespersons and their advisors from around the world with experience during large scale emergencies. Interviews were conducted with 27 individuals representing governments from 19 countries across five continents. Thematic analysis, using both a deductive and inductive approach, organized and identified salient themes and patterns that emerged from the interview data. RESULTS: The thematic analysis of the interviews' data led to the identification of 9 principles of communication: 1) Timeliness, 2) Transparency, 3) Coordination, 4) Accuracy and Consistency, 5) Accountability and Integrity, 6) Independence from politics, 7) Responsiveness, 8) Equity, 9) Trust and Empathy. We also developed 36 recommendations actionable by government agencies to enhance the practice of the 9 principles. Examples include the need for: proactive communication strategies, permanent communication task forces integrated into preparedness and response efforts, robust processes to enhance open discussion of controversial topics within government agencies, clarification of how various branches of government coordinate to oversee specific aspects of the overall communication, and development of relationships across public and private entities ahead of a crisis. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest key practical recommendations for leaders of government agencies to enhance ERC capabilities going forward. Before a crisis, they must constantly review internal processes and integrate ERC functions into overall communication planning efforts. During a crisis, they must coordinate roles and responsibilities across branches of governments, strive to communicate to a range of populations to uphold equity, maintain transparency by avoiding information voids on controversial issues and build trust by building relationships with a variety of community leaders. After a crisis, government agencies should continue the practice of social listening to hear more about the public's informational needs, strengthen civic participation processes, and understand how an always evolving information environment can best be leveraged during future crises.

Leveraging Community Resources and Local Expertise to Build a Safe Learning Environment for K-12 Students During COVID-19: A Field Experience.

OBJECTIVE: To share the experiences of stakeholders in a school district's response to the COVID-19 pandemic, especially related to supporting the district in the reopening process and sharing key decision points, challenges, facilitators, and overall lessons learned that may be applied to future emergencies. DESIGN: A descriptive study of participants' experience that included (1) a content analysis of policy documents and recommendations that were developed and published by key stakeholders and (2) interviews with stakeholders in the school system that were coded to identify patterns and themes. SETTING: Remote interviews conducted over Zoom. Participants live or work in Brookline, Massachusetts. PARTICIPANTS: Fifteen qualitative interviews were conducted with school committee members, principals, members of school leadership, school nurses, school staff, parents, advisory panel members, and physicians collaborating with the school district. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Whether patterns and themes related to challenges, solutions, and recommendations for future management of public health emergencies in the district could be identified. RESULTS: Challenges experienced during a school district's response included staffing burdens, changing scopes of services, the difficulty of successfully enforcing social distancing, addressing staff and family fears, meeting informational needs, and limited resources. Multiple interviewees shared that they felt there should have been a greater emphasis on mental health in the district's response. Successes of the response included the creation and implementation of a consistent communications system, recruiting volunteers and mobilizing the community to address critical needs, and effective technology expansion and usage in schools. CONCLUSIONS: Leadership and community collaboration were essential to the response to the COVID-19 pandemic in addition to strategies used to enhance coordination and communication and relay information across the community.

Development of a public health emergency preparedness competency model for European Union countries.

In 2017, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) developed a competency model for individuals who work in public health emergency preparedness (PHEP) in European Union (EU) countries. The model serves as the basis for developing competency-based training programmes to support professionals in PHEP efforts at the country level. The competency model describes the knowledge and skills professionals need when working in national-level PHEP, such as preparedness committee members or their equivalents. In order to develop the model, existing competency statements were reviewed, as well as case studies and reports. Fifty-three professionals from the EU and other countries provided feedback to the model by participating in a three-stage consultation process. The model includes 102 competency, 100 knowledge and 158 skill statements. In addition to specifying the appropriate content for training programmes, the proposed common competency model can help to standardise terminology and approaches to PHEP training.

Facilitated Look-Back Analysis of Public Health Emergencies to Enhance Preparedness: A Brief Report of a Chemical Spill in Charleston, West Virginia.

To demonstrate how public health emergency systems can use health systems tools to analyze and learn from critical incidents, we employed a facilitated look-back approach to review the public response to a chemical spill in Charleston, West Virginia. We reviewed official reports, news articles, and other documents; conducted in-person interviews with key public health and emergency response officials and local community stakeholders; and organized a facilitated look-back meeting to identify root causes of the problems that were encountered. The primary response challenges were (1) public distrust stemming from scientific uncertainty about potential harms of chemicals involved in the spill and how this uncertainty was communicated and (2) communication within the public health system, broadly defined. We found that to address inherent uncertainty, health officials should acknowledge uncertainty and tell the public what is known and unknown, and what they are doing to get more information.

Root-Cause Analysis for Enhancing Public Health Emergency Preparedness: A Brief Report of a Salmonella Outbreak in the Alamosa, Colorado, Water Supply.

To demonstrate how public health systems can use root-cause analysis (RCA) to improve learning from critical incidents, the research team utilized a facilitated look-back meeting to examine the public health systems' response to a Salmonella outbreak in the water supply in Alamosa, Colorado. We worked with public health, emergency management agencies, and other stakeholders to identify response challenges related to public health emergency preparedness capabilities, root causes, and lessons learned. The results demonstrate that RCA can help identify systems issues that, if addressed, can improve future responses. Furthermore, RCA can identify more basic issues that go beyond a specific incident or setting, such as the need for effective communication and coordination throughout the public health system, and the social capital needed to support it.

A Conceptual Framework for the Evaluation of Emergency Risk Communications.

OBJECTIVES: To articulate a conceptual framework in support of evaluation activities in emergency risk communications (ERC). METHODS: The framework proposed is based on a systematic review of the scientific literature (2001-2016) combined with data derived from a series of semistructured interviews with experts and practitioners in ERC, and it is designed to support local, national, and international public health organizations in implementing evaluation studies in ERC. RESULTS: We identified a list of ERC outcomes from the full-text review of 152 articles and categorized these into 3 groups, depending upon the level at which the outcome was measured: (1) information environment, (2) population, and (3) public health system. We analyzed interviewees' data from 18 interviews to identify practices and processes related to the effectiveness of ERC and included these as key structural components and processes in the developed evaluation framework. CONCLUSIONS: Researchers and public health practitioners interested in the evaluation of ERC can use the conceptual framework described in this article to guide the development of evaluation studies and methods for assessing communication outcomes related to public health emergencies.

Public Health System Research in Public Health Emergency Preparedness in the United States (2009-2015): Actionable Knowledge Base.

BACKGROUND: In 2008, the Institute of Medicine released a letter report identifying 4 research priority areas for public health emergency preparedness in public health system research: (1) enhancing the usefulness of training, (2) improving timely emergency communications, (3) creating and maintaining sustainable response systems, and (4) generating effectiveness criteria and metrics. OBJECTIVES: To (1) identify and characterize public health system research in public health emergency preparedness produced in the United States from 2009 to 2015, (2) synthesize research findings and assess the level of confidence in these findings, and (3) describe the evolution of knowledge production in public health emergency preparedness system research. Search Methods and Selection Criteria. We reviewed and included the titles and abstracts of 1584 articles derived from MEDLINE, EMBASE, and gray literature databases that focused on the organizational or financial aspects of public health emergency preparedness activities and were grounded on empirical studies. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: We included 156 articles. We appraised the quality of the studies according to the study design. We identified themes during article analysis and summarized overall findings by theme. We determined level of confidence in the findings with the GRADE-CERQual tool. MAIN RESULTS: Thirty-one studies provided evidence on how to enhance the usefulness of training. Results demonstrated the utility of drills and exercises to enhance decision-making capabilities and coordination across organizations, the benefit of cross-sector partnerships for successfully implementing training activities, and the value of integrating evaluation methods to support training improvement efforts. Thirty-six studies provided evidence on how to improve timely communications. Results supported the use of communication strategies that address differences in access to information, knowledge, attitudes, and practices across segments of the population as well as evidence on specific communication barriers experienced by public health and health care personnel. Forty-eight studies provided evidence on how to create and sustain preparedness systems. Results included how to build social capital across organizations and citizens and how to develop sustainable and useful planning efforts that maintain flexibility and rely on available medical data. Twenty-six studies provided evidence on the usefulness of measurement efforts, such as community and organizational needs assessments, and new methods to learn from the response to critical incidents. CONCLUSIONS: In the United States, the field of public health emergency preparedness system research has been supported by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention since the release of the 2008 Institute of Medicine letter report. The first definition of public health emergency preparedness appeared in 2007, and before 2008 there was a lack of research and empirical evidence across all 4 research areas identified by the Institute of Medicine. This field can be considered relatively new compared with other research areas in public health; for example, tobacco control research can rely on more than 70 years of knowledge production. However, this review demonstrates that, during the past 7 years, public health emergency preparedness system research has evolved from generic inquiry to the analysis of specific interventions with more empirical studies. Public Health Implications: The results of this review provide an evidence base for public health practitioners responsible for enhancing key components of preparedness and response such as communication, training, and planning efforts.

The Use of Social Media by State Health Departments in the US: Analyzing Health Communication Through Facebook.

The use of social media as a powerful health communication tool is an area of current research interest. Our objective was to describe use of Facebook by State Health Departments (SHDs) in US, and their relationship with CDC's Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) data. Facebook pages of 34 SHDs were studied over a 200 day period, coding 2597 posts into 19 broad health communication categories. Mean number of Facebook posts per SHD was 76.4 (range 34-133); most frequent topic areas included healthy living (12%), communicable diseases (9%), vaccines and immunization (7%), emergency preparedness and response (7%), infant and child health (5%), smoking and tobacco use (5%), and miscellaneous (32%). Through web-based interactive graphics (Google motion charts), we contrasted Facebook posts with CDC's BRFSS data on adult nutrition and physical activity, vaccination, smoking, adolescent health and road traffic accidents. Our research finds an apparent disconnect between content provided on Facebook by SHDs and the health conditions that affect their populations. Acknowledging the severe limitations in funding and human resources faced by the SHDs, our research attempts to present the factual situation in embracing a vastly popular social media platform for health communication. We believe there is a need for research exploring methods to balance the demands and resources.

Public response to the 2014 chemical spill in West Virginia: knowledge, opinions and behaviours.

BACKGROUND: On January 9(th) 2014, a faulty storage tank leaked 10,000 gal of an industrial coal processing liquid into the Elk River in West Virginia (WV), contaminating the drinking water of the nine counties collectively known as the Kanawha Valley. The aim of this study was to 1) explore how and when people obtained information about the water contamination and 2) understand how individual and social factors such as socio-demographic characteristics, timing of information, trust in government, and risk perception influenced compliance with recommended behaviours and the public's views on the need for environmental regulations. METHODS: Between February 7-26, 2014, a survey was conducted of adult residents of West Virginia including geographic areas affected and non-affected by the chemical spill. The total population-based sample size was 690 and the survey was administered online. Descriptive statistics and multivariate statistical models were created to determine what factors influenced compliance and public opinions. RESULTS: Findings from this study show that, during the 2014 West Virginia water crisis, information about water contamination spread quickly, as 73 % of survey respondents across the state and 89 % within the affected counties reported they heard about the incident the same day it occurred. Most people received the information promptly, understood what happened, and understood what to do to prevent exposure to the contaminant. The majority of respondents living in affected counties (70 %) followed the recommended behaviours. Among participants who voiced an opinion on the role of government in environmental regulations, the majority of respondents (54 %) reported there is "too little regulation." CONCLUSION: Data from this study show that a higher perception of risk and timely receipt of information are associated with compliance with recommended behaviours, underlying the importance of releasing information to the public as quickly as possible during a crisis. This study also highlights the importance of coordinating risk communication activities beyond the area of the incident to assure public understanding of what measures are recommended, which are not and where.

What have we learned about communication inequalities during the H1N1 pandemic: a systematic review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: During public health emergencies, public officials are busy in developing communication strategies to protect the population from existing or potential threats. However, a population's social and individual determinants (i.e. education, income, race/ethnicity) may lead to inequalities in individual or group-specific exposure to public health communication messages, and in the capacity to access, process, and act upon the information received by specific sub-groups- a concept defined as communication inequalities.The aims of this literature review are to: 1) characterize the scientific literature that examined issues related to communication to the public during the H1N1 pandemic, and 2) summarize the knowledge gained in our understanding of social determinants and their association with communication inequalities in the preparedness and response to an influenza pandemic. METHODS: Articles were searched in eight major communication, social sciences, and health and medical databases of scientific literature and reviewed by two independent reviewers by following the PRISMA guidelines. The selected articles were classified and analyzed in accordance with the Structural Influence Model of Public Health Emergency Preparedness Communications. RESULTS: A total of 118 empirical studies were included for final review. Among them, 78% were population-based studies and 22% were articles that employed information environment analyses techniques. Consistent results were reported on the association between social determinants of communication inequalities and emergency preparedness outcomes. Trust in public officials and source of information, worry and levels of knowledge about the disease, and routine media exposure as well as information-seeking behaviors, were related to greater likelihood of adoption of recommended infection prevention practices. When addressed in communication interventions, these factors can increase the effectiveness of the response to pandemics. CONCLUSIONS: Consistently across studies, a number of potential predictors of behavioral compliance to preventive recommendations during a pandemic were identified. Our findings show the need to include such evidence found in the development of future communication campaigns to ensure the highest rates of compliance with recommended protection measures and reduce communication inequalities during future emergencies.

The public health system response to the 2008 Sichuan province earthquake: a literature review and interviews.

This paper describes and analyses the public health system response to the deadly earthquake in Sichuan province, China, in May 2008. Drawing on an experiential learning project consisting of a literature review and field research, including a series of interviews with medical and public health professionals, policy-makers and first responders, a conceptual framework was developed to describe the response. This approach emphasises the pre-existing preparedness level of the medical and public health systems, as well as social, economic and geo-political factors that had an impact on mitigation efforts. This framework was used to conduct post-disaster analyses addressing major response issues and examining methods employed during the public health response to the disaster. This framework could be used to describe and analyse the emergency response to other disasters.

Measurement, geospatial, and mechanistic models of public health hazard vulnerability and jurisdictional risk.

CONTEXT: County and state health departments are increasingly conducting hazard vulnerability and jurisdictional risk (HVJR) assessments for public health emergency preparedness and mitigation planning and evaluation to improve the public health disaster response; however, integration and adoption of these assessments into practice are still relatively rare. While the quantitative methods associated with complex analytic and measurement methods, causal inference, and decision theory are common in public health research, they have not been widely used in public health preparedness and mitigation planning. OBJECTIVE: To address this gap, the Harvard School of Public Health PERLC's goal was to develop measurement, geospatial, and mechanistic models to aid public health practitioners in understanding the complexity of HVJR assessment and to determine the feasibility of using these methods for dynamic and predictive HVJR analyses. METHODS: We used systematic reviews, causal inference theory, structural equation modeling (SEM), and multivariate statistical methods to develop the conceptual and mechanistic HVJR models. Geospatial mapping was used to inform the hypothetical mechanistic model by visually examining the variability and patterns associated with county-level demographic, social, economic, hazards, and resource data. A simulation algorithm was developed for testing the feasibility of using SEM estimation. RESULTS: The conceptual model identified the predictive latent variables used in public health HVJR tools (hazard, vulnerability, and resilience), the outcomes (human, physical, and economic losses), and the corresponding measurement subcomponents. This model was translated into a hypothetical mechanistic model to explore and evaluate causal and measurement pathways. To test the feasibility of SEM estimation, the mechanistic model path diagram was translated into linear equations and solved simultaneously using simulated data representing 192 counties. CONCLUSIONS: Measurement, geospatial, and mechanistic models can be used to confirm and validate existing and proposed HVJR models and potentially increase the predictive validity of these models for optimizing and improving public health preparedness planning.

Corrigendum: Reframing human trafficking awareness campaigns in the United States: goals, audience, and content.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1195005.].

Determinants of Vaccine Hesitancy among African American and Black Individuals in the United States of America: A Systematic Literature Review.

Despite the crucial role the COVID-19 vaccine played in curbing the pandemic, a significant portion of Black and African American individuals expressed hesitancy toward being vaccinated. This review aimed to identify the determinants of COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among Black and African American individuals in the U.S. The literature search was conducted in December 2022 according to the PRISMA criteria focusing on empirical studies. Data extraction methods, critical appraisal, and secondary thematic analysis were conducted on both quantitative and qualitative studies. Sixteen quantitative studies identified the key factors associated with vaccine hesitancy, such as confidence in vaccine effectiveness, safety, and trust in the healthcare system. Fourteen qualitative studies revealed major themes of mistrust, fear, and information needs, including historical mistrust, concerns about the vaccine development process, and contemporary institutional mistrust. The synthesis of quantitative and qualitative findings derived from this review provides a nuanced understanding of the determinants of vaccine hesitancy in Black and African American communities in the U.S., offering a foundation for the development of evidence-based interventions. Mistrust in the healthcare system, fear, and informational gaps on vaccine safety and effectiveness were identified as significant barriers to vaccination, demanding targeted interventions.

A consensus process on the use of exercises and after action reports to assess and improve public health emergency preparedness and response.

INTRODUCTION: The objective of disaster preparedness is to ensure that appropriate systems, procedures, and resources are in place to provide prompt, effective assistance to disaster victims, thus facilitating relief measures and rehabilitation of services. Disaster preparedness efforts include the identification of possible health scenarios based on the probability of hazards and vulnerability of the population as a basis for creating a disaster plan. Exercises that simulate emergency response, involving the health and other sectors, have been suggested as useful tools to test the plans on a regular basis and measure preparedness efforts; the absence of actual testing is likely to negate even the best of abstract plans. Problem Exercises and after action reports (AARs) are used to document preparedness activities. However, to date, limited analysis has been performed on what makes an exercise an effective tool to assess public health emergency preparedness (PHEP), and how AARs can be developed and used to support PHEP improvement efforts. The scope of this project was to achieve consensus on: (1) what makes an exercise an effective tool to assess PHEP; and (2) what makes an AAR an effective tool to guide PHEP improvement efforts. METHODS: Sixty-one PHEP experts were convened by the use of Nominal Group Techniques to achieve consensus on a series of characteristics that exercises should have when designed to assess PHEP and on the recommendations for developing high-quality AARs. RESULTS: The panelists achieved consensus on a list of recommendations to improve the use of exercises and AARs in PHEP improvement efforts. Such recommendations ranged from the characteristics of the exercise audience to the evaluation methodology being used and the characteristics of the produced AAR such as its structure and content. CONCLUSIONS: The characteristics of the exercise audience, scenario and scope are among the most important attributes to the effectiveness of an exercise conducted for PHEP evaluation purposes. The evaluation instruments used to gather observations need an appropriate matching between exercise objectives and the response capabilities tested during the exercise, to build the base for the production of a good AAR. Improvements in the design and creation of exercises and AARs could facilitate better reporting and measurement of preparedness outcomes.

Reframing human trafficking awareness campaigns in the United States: goals, audience, and content.

Introduction: Human trafficking (HT) awareness campaigns can educate the public and specific professional figures about this crime and ways to prevent it. However, there currently remains a gap in terms of how to best frame such campaigns without stigmatizing groups of individuals or portraying victims in unrealistic ways. Methods: We conducted four focus groups with 22 experts in HT to explore their perspectives and opinions on current challenges in the framing of HT awareness campaigns in the United States. Focus groups were conducted via Zoom and transcribed verbatim. Two independent reviewers analyzed the transcripts to identify themes using an inductive approach. The results of the focus groups analysis were used to structure the guiding questions of a brainstorming technique named Nominal Group Technique (NGT). Fifteen of 22 experts that participated in the focus groups joined the in-person NGT with the intent of generating ideas and achieving consensus on target audiences, goals, and content of human trafficking awareness campaigns. At the end of the NGT participants ranked priority for actions in the development of HT awareness efforts in the United States. Results: During the NGT the experts provided a number of recommendations to improve HT awareness and to empower victims to reach for help. They pointed to the need for: awareness efforts that describe HT on a spectrum of human abuse and exploitation; training for professional figures about trauma-informed care and communication; and efforts that empower trafficked victims to seek support. They also pointed to the need to develop awareness efforts tailored to local needs in close collaborations with the community-based organizations that can champion their dissemination and be the primary point of access for victims seeking help.

The Exodus Of State And Local Public Health Employees: Separations Started Before And Continued Throughout COVID-19.

Understanding the size and composition of the state and local governmental public health workforce in the United States is critical for promoting and protecting the health of the public. Using pandemic-era data from the Public Health Workforce Interests and Needs Survey fielded in 2017 and 2021, this study compared intent to leave or retire in 2017 with actual separations through 2021 among state and local public health agency staff. We also examined how employee age, region, and intent to leave correlated with separations and considered the effect on the workforce if trends were to continue. In our analytic sample, nearly half of all employees in state and local public health agencies left between 2017 and 2021, a proportion that rose to three-quarters for those ages thirty-five and younger or with shorter tenures. If separation trends continue, by 2025 this would represent more than 100,000 staff leaving their organizations, or as much as half of the governmental public health workforce in total. Given the likelihood of increasing outbreaks and future global pandemics, strategies to improve recruitment and retention must be prioritized.

Predictors of knowledge of H1N1 infection and transmission in the U.S. population.

BACKGROUND: The strength of a society's response to a public health emergency depends partly on meeting the needs of all segments of the population, especially those who are most vulnerable and subject to greatest adversity. Since the early stages of the H1N1 pandemic, public communication of H1N1 information has been recognized as a challenging issue. Public communication is considered a critical public health task to mitigating adverse population health outcomes before, during, and after public health emergencies. To investigate knowledge and knowledge gaps in the general population regarding the H1N1 pandemic, and to identify the social determinants associated with those gaps, we conducted a survey in March 2010 using a representative random sample of U.S. households. METHODS: Data were gathered from 1,569 respondents (66.3% response rate) and analyzed using ordered logistic regression to study the impact of socioeconomic factors and demographic characteristics on the individual's knowledge concerning H1N1 infection and transmission. RESULTS: Results suggest that level of education and home ownership, reliable indicators of socioeconomic position (SEP), were associated with knowledge of H1N1. Level of education was found to be directly associated with level of knowledge about virus transmission [OR = 1.35, 95% C.I. 1.12-1.63]. Home ownership versus renting was also positively associated with knowledge on the signs and symptoms of H1N1 infection in particular [OR = 2.89, 95% C.I. 1.26-6.66]. CONCLUSIONS: Policymakers and public health practitioners should take specific SEP factors into consideration when implementing educational and preventive interventions promoting the health and preparedness of the population, and when designing communication campaigns during a public health emergency.