Comparative morphology of gigantopyramidal neurons in primary motor cortex across mammals.

Gigantopyramidal neurons, referred to as Betz cells in primates, are characterized by large somata and extensive basilar dendrites. Although there have been morphological descriptions and drawings of gigantopyramidal neurons in a limited number of species, quantitative investigations have typically been limited to measures of soma size. The current study thus employed two separate analytical approaches: a morphological investigation using the Golgi technique to provide qualitative and quantitative somatodendritic measures of gigantopyramidal neurons across 19 mammalian species from 7 orders; and unbiased stereology to compare the soma volume of layer V pyramidal and gigantopyramidal neurons in primary motor cortex between 11 carnivore and 9 primate species. Of the 617 neurons traced in the morphological analysis, 181 were gigantopyramidal neurons, with deep (primarily layer V) pyramidal (n = 203) and superficial (primarily layer III) pyramidal (n = 233) neurons quantified for comparative purposes. Qualitatively, dendritic morphology varied considerably across species, with some (sub)orders (e.g., artiodactyls, perissodactyls, feliforms) exhibiting bifurcating, V-shaped apical dendrites. Basilar dendrites exhibited idiosyncratic geometry across and within taxonomic groups. Quantitatively, most dendritic measures were significantly greater in gigantopyramidal neurons than in superficial and deep pyramidal neurons. Cluster analyses revealed that most taxonomic groups could be discriminated based on somatodendritic morphology for both superficial and gigantopyramidal neurons. Finally, in agreement with Brodmann, gigantopyramidal neurons in both the morphological and stereological analyses were larger in feliforms (especially in the Panthera species) than in other (sub)orders, possibly due to specializations in muscle fiber composition and musculoskeletal systems.

Neocortical neuronal morphology in the Siberian Tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) and the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa).

Despite extensive investigations of the neocortex in the domestic cat, little is known about neuronal morphology in larger felids. To this end, the present study characterized and quantified the somatodendritic morphology of neocortical neurons in prefrontal, motor, and visual cortices of the Siberian tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) and clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa). After neurons were stained with a modified Golgi technique (N = 194), dendritic branching and spine distributions were analyzed using computer-assisted morphometry. Qualitatively, aspiny and spiny neurons in both species appeared morphologically similar to those observed in the domestic cat. Although the morphology of spiny neurons was diverse, with the presence of extraverted, inverted, horizontal, and multiapical pyramidal neurons, the most common variant was the typical pyramidal neuron. Gigantopyramidal neurons in the motor cortex were extremely large, confirming the observation of Brodmann ([1909] Vergleichende Lokalisationlehre der Grosshirnrinde in ihren Prinzipien dargestellt auf Grund des Zellenbaues. Leipzig, Germany: J.A. Barth), who found large somata for these neurons in carnivores in general, and felids in particular. Quantitatively, a MARSplines analysis of dendritic measures differentiated typical pyramidal neurons between the Siberian tiger and the clouded leopard with 93% accuracy. In general, the dendrites of typical pyramidal neurons were more complex in the tiger than in the leopards. Moreover, dendritic measures in tiger pyramidal neurons were disproportionally large relative to body/brain size insofar as they were nearly as extensive as those observed in much larger mammals (e.g., African elephant). Comparison of neuronal morphology in a more diverse collection of larger felids may elucidate the comparative context for the relatively large size of the pyramidal neurons observed in the present study. J. Comp. Neurol. 524:3641-3665, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Registered Replication Report: Strack, Martin, & Stepper (1988).

According to the facial feedback hypothesis, people's affective responses can be influenced by their own facial expression (e.g., smiling, pouting), even when their expression did not result from their emotional experiences. For example, Strack, Martin, and Stepper (1988) instructed participants to rate the funniness of cartoons using a pen that they held in their mouth. In line with the facial feedback hypothesis, when participants held the pen with their teeth (inducing a "smile"), they rated the cartoons as funnier than when they held the pen with their lips (inducing a "pout"). This seminal study of the facial feedback hypothesis has not been replicated directly. This Registered Replication Report describes the results of 17 independent direct replications of Study 1 from Strack et al. (1988), all of which followed the same vetted protocol. A meta-analysis of these studies examined the difference in funniness ratings between the "smile" and "pout" conditions. The original Strack et al. (1988) study reported a rating difference of 0.82 units on a 10-point Likert scale. Our meta-analysis revealed a rating difference of 0.03 units with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -0.11 to 0.16.