Preclinical toxicology profile of squalene epoxidase inhibitors.

Small cell lung cancer (SCLC) is a particularly aggressive subset of lung cancer, and identification of new therapeutic options is of significant interest. We recently reported that SCLC cell lines display a specific vulnerability to inhibition of squalene epoxidase (SQLE), an enzyme in the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway that catalyzes the conversion of squalene to 2,3-oxidosqualene. Since it has been reported that SQLE inhibition can result in dermatitis in dogs, we conducted a series of experiments to determine if SQLE inhibitors would be tolerated at exposures predicted to drive maximal efficacy in SCLC tumors. Detailed profiling of the SQLE inhibitor NB-598 showed that dogs did not tolerate predicted efficacious exposures, with dose-limiting toxicity due to gastrointestinal clinical observations, although skin toxicities were also observed. To extend these studies, two SQLE inhibitors, NB-598 and Cmpd-4″, and their structurally inactive analogs, NB-598.ia and Cmpd-4″.ia, were profiled in monkeys. While both active SQLE inhibitors resulted in dose-limiting gastrointestinal toxicity, the structurally similar inactive analogs did not. Collectively, our data demonstrate that significant toxicities arise at exposures well below the predicted levels needed for anti-tumor activity. The on-target nature of the toxicities identified is likely to limit the potential therapeutic utility of SQLE inhibition for the treatment of SCLC.

AG-348 enhances pyruvate kinase activity in red blood cells from patients with pyruvate kinase deficiency.

Pyruvate kinase (PK) deficiency is a rare genetic disease that causes chronic hemolytic anemia. There are currently no targeted therapies for PK deficiency. Here, we describe the identification and characterization of AG-348, an allosteric activator of PK that is currently in clinical trials for the treatment of PK deficiency. We demonstrate that AG-348 can increase the activity of wild-type and mutant PK enzymes in biochemical assays and in patient red blood cells treated ex vivo. These data illustrate the potential for AG-348 to restore the glycolytic pathway activity in patients with PK deficiency and ultimately lead to clinical benefit.

A mouse model of a human congenital disorder of glycosylation caused by loss of PMM2.

The most common congenital disorder of glycosylation (CDG), phosphomannomutase 2 (PMM2)-CDG, is caused by mutations in PMM2 that limit availability of mannose precursors required for protein N-glycosylation. The disorder has no therapy and there are no models to test new treatments. We generated compound heterozygous mice with the R137H and F115L mutations in Pmm2 that correspond to the most prevalent alleles found in patients with PMM2-CDG. Many Pmm2R137H/F115L mice died prenatally, while survivors had significantly stunted growth. These animals and cells derived from them showed protein glycosylation deficiencies similar to those found in patients with PMM2-CDG. Growth-related glycoproteins insulin-like growth factor (IGF) 1, IGF binding protein-3 and acid-labile subunit, along with antithrombin III, were all deficient in Pmm2R137H/F115L mice, but their levels in heterozygous mice were comparable to wild-type (WT) littermates. These imbalances, resulting from defective glycosylation, are likely the cause of the stunted growth seen both in our model and in PMM2-CDG patients. Both Pmm2R137H/F115L mouse and PMM2-CDG patient-derived fibroblasts displayed reductions in PMM activity, guanosine diphosphate mannose, lipid-linked oligosaccharide precursor and total cellular protein glycosylation, along with hypoglycosylation of a new endogenous biomarker, glycoprotein 130 (gp130). Over-expression of WT-PMM2 in patient-derived fibroblasts rescued all these defects, showing that restoration of mutant PMM2 activity is a viable therapeutic strategy. This functional mouse model of PMM2-CDG, in vitro assays and identification of the novel gp130 biomarker all shed light on the human disease, and moreover, provide the essential tools to test potential therapeutics for this untreatable disease.

A small molecule inhibitor of mutant IDH2 rescues cardiomyopathy in a D-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria type II mouse model.

D-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria (D2HGA) type II is a rare neurometabolic disorder caused by germline gain-of-function mutations in isocitrate dehydrogenase 2 (IDH2), resulting in accumulation of D-2-hydroxyglutarate (D2HG). Patients exhibit a wide spectrum of symptoms including cardiomyopathy, epilepsy, developmental delay and limited life span. Currently, there are no effective therapeutic interventions. We generated a D2HGA type II mouse model by introducing the Idh2R140Q mutation at the native chromosomal locus. Idh2R140Q mice displayed significantly elevated 2HG levels and recapitulated multiple defects seen in patients. AGI-026, a potent, selective inhibitor of the human IDH2R140Q-mutant enzyme, suppressed 2HG production, rescued cardiomyopathy, and provided a survival benefit in Idh2R140Q mice; treatment withdrawal resulted in deterioration of cardiac function. We observed differential expression of multiple genes and metabolites that are associated with cardiomyopathy, which were largely reversed by AGI-026. These findings demonstrate the potential therapeutic benefit of an IDH2R140Q inhibitor in patients with D2HGA type II.

A brief overview of the 33rd Annual STP Symposium on the translational pathology: relevance of toxicologic pathology to human health.

The 33rd Society of Toxicologic Pathology's Annual Symposium focused on translational science and the relevance of toxicologic pathology to human health. Toxicologic pathologists work in diverse settings studying changes elicited by pharmacological, chemical, and environmental agents and factors that modify these responses. Regardless of the work setting, society members are dedicated to the integration of toxicologic pathology into hazard identification, risk assessment, and risk communication regarding human and animal exposure to potentially toxic substances. Toxicologic pathologists routinely face not only questions regarding pathological changes related to compound exposure but also questions concerning what translational relevance those lesions and exposures have to a human population or organ system. This symposium provided a basis for the membership to understand the variety of roles the toxicologic pathologist plays in translational science, where our gaps in translational science are, and how we can move forward to better address the challenges in the field translational science in order to continue to positively impact human health.

Industry-contract research organization pathology interactions: a perspective of contract research organizations in producing the best quality pathology report.

This article provides observations on the features of sponsor-contract research organization communication that will achieve the best quality pathology report based on our collective experience. Information on the test article and any anticipated findings should be provided, and initial slide examination should be done with knowledge of treatment group (but may be followed by blinded review of target tissues to determine no-effect levels). Only a pathologist should write or revise the pathology report or the pathology section of the overall study report. To address concerns related to undue sponsor influence, comments by sponsors should be presented as suggestions rather than directives. Adversity should be defined for each finding by the study pathologist, but the no-observed adverse effect level should not be discussed in the pathology report. Board-certified pathologists are recommended, but are not essential. Sponsors that have a particular format or report preferences should make them known well in advance. Histologic processing "to glass" of protocol-specified tissues from all dosage groups is recommended for rapid evaluation of target tissues. Telepathology is beneficial in certain situations, but it is usually more efficient for the study pathologist and reviewing pathologist to be in the same physical location to review differences of opinion and reach a consensus.

Phase 1 Single- and Multiple-Ascending-Dose Randomized Studies of the Safety, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics of AG-348, a First-in-Class Allosteric Activator of Pyruvate Kinase R, in Healthy Volunteers.

Pyruvate kinase deficiency is a chronic hemolytic anemia caused by mutations in PK-R, a key glycolytic enzyme in erythrocytes. These 2 phase 1 randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind healthy-volunteer studies assessed the safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of AG-348, a first-in-class allosteric PK-R activator. Twelve sequential cohorts were randomized 2:6 to receive oral placebo or AG-348, respectively, as a single dose (30-2500 mg) in the single-ascending-dose (SAD) study (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02108106) or 15-700 mg every 12 hours or 120 mg every 24 hours, for 14 days in the multiple-ascending-dose (MAD) study (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT02149966). All 48 subjects completed the fasted SAD part; 44 of 48 completed the MAD (2 discontinued because of adverse events [AEs], 2 withdrew consent). The most common treatment-related AEs in AG-348-treated subjects were headache (16.7% [SAD] and 13.9% [MAD]) and nausea (13.9%, both studies). AE frequency increased at AG-348 doses ≥ 700 mg (SAD) and at 700 mg every 12 hours (MAD); 1 grade ≥ 3 AE occurred in the latter cohort. Pharmacokinetics were favorable with low variability. Dose-dependent changes in blood glycolytic intermediates consistent with glycolytic pathway activation were observed at all MAD doses, supporting future trials investigating the potential of AG-348 for treating PK deficiency or other anemias.

Discovery of AG-120 (Ivosidenib): A First-in-Class Mutant IDH1 Inhibitor for the Treatment of IDH1 Mutant Cancers.

Somatic point mutations at a key arginine residue (R132) within the active site of the metabolic enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) confer a novel gain of function in cancer cells, resulting in the production of d-2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG), an oncometabolite. Elevated 2-HG levels are implicated in epigenetic alterations and impaired cellular differentiation. IDH1 mutations have been described in an array of hematologic malignancies and solid tumors. Here, we report the discovery of AG-120 (ivosidenib), an inhibitor of the IDH1 mutant enzyme that exhibits profound 2-HG lowering in tumor models and the ability to effect differentiation of primary patient AML samples ex vivo. Preliminary data from phase 1 clinical trials enrolling patients with cancers harboring an IDH1 mutation indicate that AG-120 has an acceptable safety profile and clinical activity.

Human T-lymphotropic virus type-1 p30 alters cell cycle G2 regulation of T lymphocytes to enhance cell survival.

BACKGROUND: Human T-lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1) causes adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma and is linked to a number of lymphocyte-mediated disorders. HTLV-1 contains both regulatory and accessory genes in four pX open reading frames. pX ORF-II encodes two proteins, p13 and p30, whose roles are still being defined in the virus life cycle and in HTLV-1 virus-host cell interactions. Proviral clones of HTLV-1 with pX ORF-II mutations diminish the ability of the virus to maintain viral loads in vivo. p30 expressed exogenously differentially modulates CREB and Tax-responsive element-mediated transcription through its interaction with CREB-binding protein/p300 and while acting as a repressor of many genes including Tax, in part by blocking tax/rex RNA nuclear export, selectively enhances key gene pathways involved in T-cell signaling/activation. RESULTS: Herein, we analyzed the role of p30 in cell cycle regulation. Jurkat T-cells transduced with a p30 expressing lentivirus vector accumulated in the G2-M phase of cell cycle. We then analyzed key proteins involved in G2-M checkpoint activation. p30 expression in Jurkat T-cells resulted in an increase in phosphorylation at serine 216 of nuclear cell division cycle 25C (Cdc25C), had enhanced checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1) serine 345 phosphorylation, reduced expression of polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1), diminished phosphorylation of PLK1 at tyrosine 210 and reduced phosphorylation of Cdc25C at serine 198. Finally, primary human lymphocyte derived cell lines immortalized by a HTLV-1 proviral clone defective in p30 expression were more susceptible to camptothecin induced apoptosis. Collectively these data are consistent with a cell survival role of p30 against genotoxic insults to HTLV-1 infected lymphocytes. CONCLUSION: Collectively, our data are the first to indicate that HTLV-1 p30 expression results in activation of the G2-M cell cycle checkpoint, events that would promote early viral spread and T-cell survival.

AG-221, a First-in-Class Therapy Targeting Acute Myeloid Leukemia Harboring Oncogenic IDH2 Mutations.

Somatic gain-of-function mutations in isocitrate dehydrogenases (IDH) 1 and 2 are found in multiple hematologic and solid tumors, leading to accumulation of the oncometabolite (R)-2-hydroxyglutarate (2HG). 2HG competitively inhibits α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases, including histone demethylases and methylcytosine dioxygenases of the TET family, causing epigenetic dysregulation and a block in cellular differentiation. In vitro studies have provided proof of concept for mutant IDH inhibition as a therapeutic approach. We report the discovery and characterization of AG-221, an orally available, selective, potent inhibitor of the mutant IDH2 enzyme. AG-221 suppressed 2HG production and induced cellular differentiation in primary human IDH2 mutation-positive acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells ex vivo and in xenograft mouse models. AG-221 also provided a statistically significant survival benefit in an aggressive IDH2R140Q-mutant AML xenograft mouse model. These findings supported initiation of the ongoing clinical trials of AG-221 in patients with IDH2 mutation-positive advanced hematologic malignancies.Significance: Mutations in IDH1/2 are identified in approximately 20% of patients with AML and contribute to leukemia via a block in hematopoietic cell differentiation. We have shown that the targeted inhibitor AG-221 suppresses the mutant IDH2 enzyme in multiple preclinical models and induces differentiation of malignant blasts, supporting its clinical development. Cancer Discov; 7(5); 478-93. ©2017 AACR.See related commentary by Thomas and Majeti, p. 459See related article by Shih et al., p. 494This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 443.

Animal models for human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection and transformation.

Over the past 25 years, animal models of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection and transformation have provided critical knowledge about viral and host factors in adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL). The virus consistently infects rabbits, some non-human primates, and to a lesser extent rats. In addition to providing fundamental concepts in viral transmission and immune responses against HTLV-1 infection, these models have provided new information about the role of viral proteins in carcinogenesis. Mice and rats, in particular immunodeficient strains, are useful models to assess immunologic parameters mediating tumor outgrowth and therapeutic invention strategies against lymphoma. Genetically altered mice including both transgenic and knockout mice offer important models to test the role of specific viral and host genes in the development of HTLV-1-associated lymphoma. Novel approaches in genetic manipulation of both HTLV-1 and animal models are available to address the complex questions that remain about viral-mediated mechanisms of cell transformation and disease. Current progress in the understanding of the molecular events of HTLV-1 infection and transformation suggests that answers to these questions are approachable using animal models of HTLV-1-associated lymphoma.

An inhibitor of mutant IDH1 delays growth and promotes differentiation of glioma cells.

The recent discovery of mutations in metabolic enzymes has rekindled interest in harnessing the altered metabolism of cancer cells for cancer therapy. One potential drug target is isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1), which is mutated in multiple human cancers. Here, we examine the role of mutant IDH1 in fully transformed cells with endogenous IDH1 mutations. A selective R132H-IDH1 inhibitor (AGI-5198) identified through a high-throughput screen blocked, in a dose-dependent manner, the ability of the mutant enzyme (mIDH1) to produce R-2-hydroxyglutarate (R-2HG). Under conditions of near-complete R-2HG inhibition, the mIDH1 inhibitor induced demethylation of histone H3K9me3 and expression of genes associated with gliogenic differentiation. Blockade of mIDH1 impaired the growth of IDH1-mutant--but not IDH1-wild-type--glioma cells without appreciable changes in genome-wide DNA methylation. These data suggest that mIDH1 may promote glioma growth through mechanisms beyond its well-characterized epigenetic effects.

Characterization of Alisertib (MLN8237), an investigational small-molecule inhibitor of aurora A kinase using novel in vivo pharmacodynamic assays.

PURPOSE: Small-molecule inhibitors of Aurora A (AAK) and B (ABK) kinases, which play important roles in mitosis, are currently being pursued in oncology clinical trials. We developed three novel assays to quantitatively measure biomarkers of AAK inhibition in vivo. Here, we describe preclinical characterization of alisertib (MLN8237), a selective AAK inhibitor, incorporating these novel pharmacodynamic assays. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We investigated the selectivity of alisertib for AAK and ABK and studied the antitumor and antiproliferative activity of alisertib in vitro and in vivo. Novel assays were used to assess chromosome alignment and mitotic spindle bipolarity in human tumor xenografts using immunofluorescent detection of DNA and alpha-tubulin, respectively. In addition, 18F-3'-fluoro-3'-deoxy-l-thymidine positron emission tomography (FLT-PET) was used to noninvasively measure effects of alisertib on in vivo tumor cell proliferation. RESULTS: Alisertib inhibited AAK over ABK with a selectivity of more than 200-fold in cells and produced a dose-dependent decrease in bipolar and aligned chromosomes in the HCT-116 xenograft model, a phenotype consistent with AAK inhibition. Alisertib inhibited proliferation of human tumor cell lines in vitro and produced tumor growth inhibition in solid tumor xenograft models and regressions in in vivo lymphoma models. In addition, a dose of alisertib that caused tumor stasis, as measured by volume, resulted in a decrease in FLT uptake, suggesting that noninvasive imaging could provide value over traditional measurements of response. CONCLUSIONS: Alisertib is a selective and potent inhibitor of AAK. The novel methods of measuring Aurora A pathway inhibition and application of tumor imaging described here may be valuable for clinical evaluation of small-molecule inhibitors.

Phase I assessment of new mechanism-based pharmacodynamic biomarkers for MLN8054, a small-molecule inhibitor of Aurora A kinase.

The mitotic kinase Aurora A is an important therapeutic target for cancer therapy. This study evaluated new mechanism-based pharmacodynamic biomarkers in cancer patients in two phase I studies of MLN8054, a small-molecule inhibitor of Aurora A kinase. Patients with advanced solid tumors received MLN8054 orally for 7 consecutive days in escalating dose cohorts, with skin and tumor biopsies obtained before and after dosing. Skin biopsies were evaluated for increased mitotic cells within the basal epithelium. Tumor biopsies were assessed for accumulation of mitotic cells within proliferative tumor regions. Several patients in the highest dose cohorts showed marked increases in the skin mitotic index after dosing. Although some tumors exhibited increases in mitotic cells after dosing, others displayed decreases, a variable outcome consistent with dual mechanisms of mitotic arrest and mitotic slippage induced by antimitotics in tumors. To provide a clearer picture, mitotic cell chromosome alignment and spindle bipolarity, new biomarkers of Aurora A inhibition that act independently of mitotic arrest or slippage, were assessed in the tumor biopsies. Several patients, primarily in the highest dose cohorts, had marked decreases in the percentage of mitotic cells with aligned chromosomes and bipolar spindles after dosing. Evidence existed for an exposure-effect relationship for mitotic cells with defects in chromosome alignment and spindle bipolarity that indicated a biologically active dose range. Outcomes of pharmacodynamic assays from skin and tumor biopsies were concordant in several patients. Together, these new pharmacodynamic assays provide evidence for Aurora A inhibition by MLN8054 in patient skin and tumor tissues.

Neurophysiological, histological and immunohistochemical characterization of bortezomib-induced neuropathy in mice.

Bortezomib, a proteasome inhibitor, is an antineoplastic drug to treat multiple myeloma and mantle cell lymphoma. Its most clinically significant adverse event is peripheral sensory neuropathy. Our objective was to characterize the neuropathy induced by bortezomib in a mouse model. Two groups were used; one group received vehicle solution and another bortezomib (1mg/kg/twice/week) for 6weeks (total dose as human schedule). Tests were performed during treatment and for 4weeks post dosing to evaluate electrophysiological, autonomic, pain sensibility and sensory-motor function changes. At the end of treatment and after washout, sciatic and tibial nerves, dorsal ganglia and intraepidermal innervation were analyzed. Bortezomib induced progressive significant decrease of sensory action potential amplitude, mild reduction of sensory velocities without effect in motor conductions. Moreover, it significantly increased pain threshold and sensory-motor impairment at 6weeks. According to these data, histopathological findings shown a mild reduction of myelinated (-10%; p=0.001) and unmyelinated fibers (-27%; p=0.04), mostly involving large and C fibers, with abnormal vesicular inclusion body in unmyelinated axons. Neurons were also involved as shown by immunohistochemical phenotypic switch. After washout, partial recovery was observed in functional, electrophysiological and histological analyses. These results suggest that axon and myelin changes might be secondary to an initial dysfunctional neuronopathy.

Toxicological protein biomarker analysis--an investigative one-week single dose intravenous infusion toxicity and toxicokinetic study in cynomolgus monkeys using an antibody-cytotoxic conjugate against ovarian cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Antibody-cytotoxic conjugates are complex novel therapeutic agents whose toxicological properties are not presently well understood. The objective of this study was to identify toxicological markers in serum that correlate with MLN8866 (an antibody-cytotoxic conjugate) exposure and related pathological events in monkeys. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cynomolgus monkeys were treated once with 5, 15, or 30 mg/kg MLN8866 via a 20 min intravenous infusion. MLN8866 exposure (Cmax and AUCO-4 day) was determined by quantifying MLN8866 levels in serum. RESULTS: The increase in MLN8866 exposure was approximately dose proportional. Two acute phase proteins in serum (serum amyloid A and haptoglobin) were correlated with MLN8866 exposure and toxicological outcomes (e.g., erythropoiesis and leucopoiesis).

Drug safety evaluation through biomarker analysis--a toxicity study in the cynomolgus monkey using an antibody-cytotoxic conjugate against ovarian cancer.

Antibody-cytotoxin conjugates are complex novel therapeutic agents whose toxicological properties are not presently well understood. The objective of this study was to identify serum biomarkers that correlate with MLN8866 (an Antibody-Cytotoxic Conjugate, mAb8866-CT) pathological events in monkeys and to predict the maximal tolerated dose (MTD) level using biomarkers. Cynomolgus monkeys were administered a single dose MLN8666 (5, 15 or 30 mg/kg) by intravenous infusion and evaluated over a 7-day period. Exposure levels were determined by quantifying MLN8866 levels (Cmax and AUC(0-96 h)) in serum. The increase in MLN8866 Cmax and AUC(0-96 h) was approximately dose proportional. Two biomarkers in serum (m/z 316 and m/z 368) were identified to be correlated with MLN8866 toxicological outcomes. The predicted MTD, 11.4 mg/kg, was within the MTD range set by pathology results (5-15 mg/kg). Administration of MLN8866 at 15 mg/kg and 30 mg/kg dose levels resulted in changes in hematology parameters associated with impaired hematopoiesis and bone marrow toxicity. The projected MLN8866 MTD exposure level was integrated with toxicokinetic analysis and showed Cmax=236 microg/mL and AUC(0-96 h)=7246 h mg/mL. The safety of three different MLN8866 dosing regimens with three dosing schedules was explored with pharmacokinetic modeling.

In vivo analysis of replication and immunogenicity of proviral clones of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 with selective envelope surface-unit mutations.

Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is the causative agent of adult T-cell lymphoma/leukemia (ATL). The HTLV-1 envelope gene exhibits limited variability when examined from infected individuals, but has not been tested using infectious clones of the virus in animal models. In vitro assays indicate that HTLV-1 envelope (Env) Ser75Ile, Asn95Asp, and Asn195Asp surface unit (SU) mutants are able to replicate in and immortalize lymphocytes. Herein, we examined the effects of these Env mutants in rabbits inoculated with HTLV-1 immortalized ACH.75, ACH.95, or ACH.195 cell lines (expressing full-length molecular clones with the SU mutations) or the ACH.1 cell line (expressing wild-type SU). All rabbits became infected, and the fidelity of the mutations was maintained throughout the 8-week study. However, SU point mutations resulted in decreased antibody responses to viral group-associated antigen (Gag) and Env antigens. ACH.195 rabbits had a selective decreased antibody response to SU, and one ACH.195 rabbit had an antibody response to both HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 SUs. Some mutant inoculation groups had altered proviral loads. However, peripheral-blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) proviral loads did not correlate with antibody responses. Our data are the first to demonstrate that mutations in critical determinants of HTLV-1 Env SU altered antibody responses and proviral loads, but do not prevent viral replication in vivo.

Enhanced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 in glaucomatous dog eyes.

OBJECTIVE: Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)-derived prostaglandins (PGs) are shown to play important pathophysiologic roles in various disease states. Recently, the effectiveness of topical PGs in reducing intraocular pressure (IOP) has stimulated further interest in the physiologic function of COX-2 and PGs in normal and glaucomatous eyes. Therefore, we investigated the cell-type distribution and expression of COX-2 in normal and glaucomatous dog eyes. PROCEDURES: Using isoform-specific antibodies, we immunohistochemically evaluated COX-2 expression in formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded normal (n = 5) and glaucomatous (n = 17) dog eyes. RESULTS: In the normal eyes, only minimal COX-2 immunoreactivity was observed in the ciliary epithelium. In the glaucomatous eyes, COX-2 expression was further observed in the cornea and corneoscleral limbus. In the cornea, moderate to strong COX-2 expression was observed in all corneal layers (epithelium, stromal cells and endothelium), with the greatest expression present in the epithelial layer. In the corneoscleral limbus area, COX-2 immunoreactivity was noted in the stromal cells of sclera, trabecular meshwork and endothelial cells of the angular aqueous plexus. CONCLUSIONS: Increased expression of COX-2 in dog glaucomatous eyes suggests that COX-2-derived PGs may have a potential role in the pathogenesis of canine glaucoma.