[O vos mendici medici. Criticism of medical doctors by Johannes Gregor Macer Szepsius (ca. 1530-after 1579)]. / O vos mendici medici. Ärztekritik des Johannes Gregor Macer Szepsius (ca. 1530­nach 1579).

A relationship between literature and medicine has existed since antiquity. A physician often appears in the literary genre of satire as the representative of medicine and is the object of the satire. The barely known humanistic author Johannes Gregor Macer Szepsius (ca. 1530-nach 1579) was a humanist who sharply criticized the work and behavior of physicians. We have read, translated and analyzed the satirical verses from his comprehensive poetical work De vera gloria, On the true glory, with respect to content, structure and sources. According to this, physicians are characterized by conceit, ignorance and laziness and therapeutic ineptitude. The comparison with other satirical works shows that much of that which he accuses physicians of is repeated in the history of medicine. Some places are similar to the proverbs from Walter's collection of proverbs from the Middle Ages and others are similar to the invectives of Petrarch. Macer also levels criticism against physicians in his poem about the family tree of his friend Anton Schneeberger that appears in Schneeberger's work De bona valetudine militum conservanda liber.

[Enchiridion medicinae (1573)-a short pharmaceutical manual compiled by Georg Henisch]. / Das Enchiridion medicinae (1573) ­ ein pharmazeutisches Kurzhandbuch, zusammengestellt von Georg Henisch.

In 1573, Georg Henisch published a short pharmaceutical handbook, Enchiridion medicinae, which contains remedies for individual health problems, without making any further comments on the effects and method of use. However, this manual had a predecessor which was published in Paris in 1571 without mentioning the author. The text of both editions is practically identical, there are only minimal differences, but the second edition has been expanded to a foreword and final sections with some recipes. A comparison of the work with contemporary medical literature revealed that Enchiridion medicinae is a compilation of three works by other authors, De materia medicinali et compositione medicamentorum by G. Rondelet from 1556, a commentary by the French author Sebastien Coquillat Scipio on Galen's work Quos, quibus, quando purgare oporteat from 1553 and the book Lilium medicinae by Bernard de Gordon from 1550. Henisch probably acquired this compilation from 1571 as a young student in France, added some passages by Rendelet and passages from two others books, wrote a foreword which he signed with his name and published in Basel in 1573.

Friedrich Jakub Fuker and his universal preventive tincture.

Fridrich Jakub Fuker (1749-1805), a physician from Kosice, is the author of works on medical topics, as well as works on social life. In addition to his medical practice, he also owned a pharmacy, and his short work on a universal preventive tincture is related to this. The author argues that there is no universal medicine, but it is possible to prepare a universal preventive preparation suitable for everyone, every age and sex. Fuker has announced that he will prepare such a tincture, available in his pharmacy, along with information on its use. However, he did not divulge its composition, as supposedly, any physician knowledgeable in the matter would figure it out on his own. With the universal tincture, Fuker abandoned rational medicine, perhaps suffering from involutional depression or acting as a salesman.

[Benefits from herb garden. Pharmaceutical works in translations by Georg Henisch]. / Der nutz auß den Krautgärten. Georg Henischs Übersetzungen pharmazeutischer Werke.

Georg Henisch (1549-1618), native of today´s Slovak city Bardejov (in German Bartfeld) translated four pharmaceutical texts from Latin into German, three works by the French author Antoine Mizauld and one by Sextus Placitus, an author of the late Classical period. All of them were published in quick succession in the years 1574-1575 and they appeared until 1615 in several unchanged editions. All four works have a similar theme: unusual curative substances which could be easily procured from plants, metals and animals and they are addressed to the layman. From the point of view of genre, they are different, it is a matter of Kräuterbücher, herbal books, so called Hausväterliteratur (house father literature) and medicine, art and wonder books as well. In his translations, Henisch does not adhere strictly to the original texts, leaving out some smaller parts, translating freely and adapting his version to suit his wider German audience.

Henischs translation of pharmaceutical works.

Bardejov-born Georg Henisch (1549-1618) translated four pharmaceutical texts from Latin into German, three works by the French author A. Mizauld and one by Sextus Placitus, an author of the late Classical Period. The Latin texts had been published several times before Henisch translated them, but his translation enables us to identify the original which he used. Henischs German versions were also issued several times in the identical form during his lifetime. All of them were published in quick succession in the years 1574-1575. Apart from these translations, Henisch also produced other works in that period, despite being just 25 years old in 1574 and still a student of medicine in Basle. All four works have a similar theme: unusual curative substances which could be easily procured from plants, metals and animals. They were intended for the general public, belonging in the genre of Kräuterbücher, herbal books, but they do not represent the typical form of this genre, for example not containing any illustrations. In his translations Henisch does not adhere strictly to the original texts, leaving out some smaller parts, translating freely and adapting his version to suit his German readers.

Enchiridion medicinae by Georg Henisch (1549-1618).

Georg Henisch (1549-1618), a native of Bardejov, for all of his life as a teacher at St. Anne's Grammar School in Augsburg, Germany. He was a very prolific polyhistor, publishing spiritual and occasional poetry, works on medicine, mathematics, rhetoric, dialectics, astronomy, linguistics and geography, editions of some ancient authors, and several translations. In 1573 he issued the pharmaceutical guide Enchiridion medicinae, which presents medications and remedies for individual health problems without any further comment on their effects and usage. However, this guide had a precursor, published in Paris in 1571, but with no mention of the author, and it is not certain that Henisch produced it. The text is de facto identical, there are only minimal variations, but the second edition has a longer title, it is extended with an introduction and the final part containing some prescriptions. In 1571, when the first edition was issued, Henisch was just 22-years old, and in 1573 he was still only 24, so in his case life experience cannot be taken into account. Comparison of the work with contemporary medical literature has shown that Enchiridion medicinae is not an original work, but a compilation of three works by other authors: De materia medicinali et compositione medicorum by G. Rondelet from 1556, a commentary to Galen´s Quos, quibus quando purgare oporteat by the French author Sebastien Coquilitus Scipio from 1553, and the book Lilium medicinae by Bernard de Gordon from 1550. Key words: Georg Henisch • pharmacy in the 16th century • pharmaceutical handbook Enchiridion medicinae.

[The image of a good pharmacist in the works of Saladin di Ascoli and Valerius Cordus]. / Obraz dobrého lekárnika v diele Saladina z Ascola a Valeria Corda.

Separation of pharmacy from medicine induced the requirements formulation for an ideal pharmacist. Two prominent authors did so, Saladin di Ascoli (the first half of the XVth century) in the work Compendium aromatariorum (1488) and Valerius Cordus (1515-1544) in the work Dispensatorium pharmacopolarum (1546). Both of them formulate similar postulates of both professional and ethical nature, namely a knowledge of Latin, good education, experience, good character traits, need of satisfied marriage; both say that the pharmacist is required to be a good Christian, they condemn alcohol, relationships with women, poisons and abortifacients, remember right relationship to money. In addition, Cordus adds a good financial situation. Their considerations had a great impact on further development of pharmacy across Europe.Key words: Saladin di Ascoli Valerius Cordus ideal pharmacist.

On the adjective lymphaticus.

The Latin word lympha is derived from the adjective limpidus = clear, transparent, although some Roman grammarians tried another derivation from the Greek word for water sprite nymfé, and then the adjective lymphaticus meant in Latin "stricken with nymph-like anger, gripped by madness." Thomas Bartholin, discoverer of the lymphatic system, was the first to use the word lymphaticus for new veins, because the liquid in them was watery. This term was accepted into the Basiliensia Nomina Anatomica but this did not mean the end of attempts at terminological changes, probably in an effort to eliminate the incorrect connotations based on the original understanding of this adjective. Other adjectival forms appeared, such as lympharis, lymphaceus, lymphatus, lymphovascularis. The most recent development is the adjective lymphoideus, occurring in the Terminologia Anatomica, which is supposed to mean the organs producing lymph but this is not correct, since the suffix -oideus indicates similarity. Considering that the anatomical nomenclature manages with the adjective urinarius for the organs which produce and carry urine, it should also manage with the adjective lymphaticus for the organs which produce and carry lymph.

[The art of surgery in nuce : Introduction to Institutiones chirurgicae (1601) by Johannes Jessenius (1566-1621)]. / Chirurgische Kunst in nuce : Einführung zu Institutiones chirurgicae (1601) von Johannes Jessenius (1566­1621).

BACKGROUND: In 1601, Johannes Jessenius published the surgical work Institutiones chirurgicae, which is of particular importance for the history of surgery in Germany. So far, research has predominantly concentrated on the anatomical works of Jessenius; his surgical work including aspects of urology has not been the subject of investigation. OBJECTIVES: In the present article, we analyze the structure, reasoning, and linguistic means used by the author in this work. RESULTS: According to the introduction, surgery comprises three basic components: agens, actor or the surgeon, actio, the activity, that is, the operation, and per quae et quibus actio perficitur, which means instruments and medications. The operations are arranged in contrasts, solutio continuorum-junctio separatorum, the dissolution of the connected-connection of the separate, extirpatio superfluorum-recuperatio deficientium, to eliminate the superfluous-to restore the missing. The description of the instruments is also based on opposite pairs. DISCUSSION: The three elements of surgical work represent a reduction of what is stated in the Hippocratic text De officina. Thus, recognizable here is an ancient tradition, which was also known to the predecessors of Jessenius. CONCLUSIONS: At the beginning of the work, aspects of an introduction to the surgical work of the 16th century are briefly recapitulated. Jessenius adheres to this historical tradition including aspects of urology of this work. In the introduction, he refers to various medical writers, without directly adopting the texts. The surgical artistry that Jessenius stands for is of fundamental importance to this day.

On the origin of the term decussatio pyramidum.

There is no consensus regarding the origin of the term decussatio pyramidum. Various anatomists of the past are honored by modern scholars, for example, Vieussens, Reil, and Collins. However, contralateral effects of brain lesions were already mentioned in Hippocratic treatises. Aretaeus of Cappadocia assumed that the anatomical reason for this phenomenon is the interchange of the nerves and called it chiasmos. This opinion was discussed in modern times and the anatomists used the term decussatio nervorum. The authorship of the first demonstration of decussatio pyramidum is given to Mistichelli (1709) and Petit (1710), but neither the term decussatio nor any of its vernacular forms are present in their work. A milestone in the history of the term is the Mémoire of Gall and Spurzheim presented to the Institut de France in 1808. In the French printed form of the Mémoire (1809), the word combination décussation des pyramides was used for the first time in anatomical literature.

On the origin of the term ependyma.

The term ependyma is considered as a translation of the expression integumentum ventriculorum cerebri or Überzug der Hirnhöhlen [the lining of the brain ventricles] in German used by the Wenzel brothers (1812). The first documented usage of this term is found in the work of the German anatomist Karl Ernst Bock from the year 1839, but nobody has ever claimed authorship of the word. Formulations such as "so-called" are used in connection with the term, avoiding any reference to a specific originator. The term first started being used in anatomical literature written in German. In its subsequent history, various interpretations of the meaning of the term have emerged, and certain attempts have also been made to change its formal aspect.

The history of Latin teeth names.

This paper aims to give an account of the Latin naming of the different types of teeth by reviewing relevant historical and contemporary literature. The paper presents etymologies of Latin or Greek teeth names, their development, variants and synonyms, and sometimes the names of their authors. The Greek names did not have the status of official terms, but the Latin terms for particular types of teeth gradually established themselves. Names for the incisors, canines and molars are Latin calques for the Greek ones (tomeis, kynodontes, mylai), dens serotinus is an indirect calque of the Greek name (odús) opsigonos, and the term pre-molar is created in the way which is now common in modern anatomical terminology, using the prefix prae- = pre and the adjective molaris. The Latin terms dentes canini and dentes molares occur in the Classical Latin literature, the term (dentes) incisivi is found first time in medieval literature, and the terms dentes premolares and dens serotinus are modern-age ones.

Latin as the language of medical terminology: some remarks on its role and prospects.

The present paper offers an up-to-date view of the status of Latin as the language of medicine, namely in its terminological component. It is concerned in greater detail with the three basic terminological vocabularies in which a doctor cannot so far manage without its knowledge. In this sense a primary rank is occupied by anatomical nomenclature whose international version remains Latin in the full extent. A more varied picture is presented by the clinical disciplines where, apart from Latin terms, expressions of ancient provenance have been applied in a large measure in the form of ethnic languages. At the same time, particularly in view of the needs of computerisation, repeated attempts have appeared to support English, which has the greatest chance of becoming a new language in the particular region of clinical medicine. In pharmaceutical terminology Latin has, for the time being, remained a functioning means of international communication, guaranteed by the European Pharmacopoeia (1996) and by the corpus of International Non-proprietary Names (1992, 1996), even though in the future an ever stronger competition of national languages should be taken into account.

[Bow legged adjectives in ancient literature]. / Uber die "krummbeinigen" Adjektive in der antiken Literatur.

This article addresses the issue of capturing the medical entity called 'curved legs' in a terminologically exact way. In so doing, it refers to the long-lasting process of differentiation of exact nuances of meaning in Ancient Greek and Latin. In the chronological perusal of ancient Greek literature, it becomes evident that the various adjectives employed are often vague when looking at non-medical literature. By contrast, in the Hippocratic corpus these terms are for the first time annotated with explanations intended to lead to a more precise understanding of the described deformity. Further attempts of differentiation can be found in the writings of Galen, who not only distinguishes between outward and inward curvatures, but also between deformities of the thigh and lower leg as well as between pathological and natural curvatures. Latin literature also provides a series of adjectives that were initially often used in the meaning of 'curved' but it was not until Celsus that these were differentiated with respect to the type and direction of the curvature. When comparing Greek and Latin adjectives, it turns out that though the Latin term blaesus can be traced back etymologically to the Greek word beta lambda alpha iota sigma ó zeta, the meaning of beta lambda alpha iota sigma ó zeta does not fully correspond to that of the Latin word. It is not before the later common transliteration of Greek words that this adjective took on the meaning of beta lambda alpha iota sigma ó zeta; however, this was finally lost again. In summary, the article concludes that exact word meanings in ancient literature are often unclear and precise ascriptions of meanings are inconsistent. In the case of "curved legs," this has led to misunderstandings regarding the respective types and directions of the curvature.

On the terminology of cranial nerves.

The present contribution adopts various points of view to discuss the terminology of the twelve nervi craniales. These are paired nerves and have dual names, terms with Roman ordinal numerals, i.e., the nerves are numbered in the top-to-bottom direction, and descriptive historical names. The time of origin and motivation behind the investigated terms are determined. The majority of terms come from the 17th and 18th centuries. The motivation behind most of them is (a) nerve localization, as this is in conformity with anatomical nomenclature in general, (b) nerve function, and rarely (c) nerve appearance. The occurrence of synonymous names and variants is also a focus of attention. In several cases, reference is made to the process called terminologization, meaning when a certain expression acquires technical meaning and the characteristic/feature of the term.