Prevalence, molecular detection and risk factors investigation for the occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii in slaughter pigs in North India.

BACKGROUND: Toxoplasma gondii, an important food borne zoonotic parasite, infects almost all warm-blooded animals including pigs. People primarily become infected with T. gondii via consuming meat of infected animals. Status of T. gondii is largely unknown in pigs in India including northern regions. We, therefore, determined the prevalence of T. gondii infection in pigs from North India. RESULTS: DNA of T. gondii was detected in 6.7% (54/810) of the tested slaughter pigs. Highest prevalence was observed in pigs from Punjab (8.2%) followed by Chandigarh (5.3%) and Uttarakhand (4.8%). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the isolates from pigs had 96-100% nucleotide identity with Type I RH strain (AF179871), 96-99.7% with VEG type III strain (LN714499) and 67-72% with type II ME 49 strain (XM002370240). However, low level of polymorphism in the targeted B1 gene did not allow the determination of the clonal lineages of the isolates. Antibodies against T. gondii was reported in 48.3% (73/151) of the sera obtained from pigs slaughtered at Chandigarh abattoir, and scavenging by pigs was a significant risk factor. CONCLUSION: Prevalence of T. gondii DNA was low in pigs in North India, however, presence of the parasite warrants food safety concerns. Further studies are required to identify the clonal lineage of T. gondii circulating in pigs reared in North India. Pig farmers should be educated about the hygienic management practices.

Canine parasitic zoonoses in India: status and issues.

Dogs play valuable roles in human society. In addition to serving as pets and companions, dogs have also been important in hunting and, in recent times, as therapy animals. In India, the number of pet dogs is estimated to be around 5 million. The stray dog population in India is estimated to be 19 million and still increasing, due to ineffective control measures. Stray dogs pose substantial risks to public health due to injury and transmission of zoonoses such as rabies. Both pet and stray dogs may act as reservoirs of zoonotic parasites in India, which has a climate conducive to the environmental survival and transmission of many zoonotic parasites. At present, visceral larva migrans, cutaneous larva migrans and echinococcosis are the most important parasitic zoonoses in India. Leishmaniosis, dirofilariosis, Brugia malayi infection and giardiosis are potentially significant emerging parasitic zoonoses, and theleziosis, gnathostomiosis and dipylidiosis occur sporadically. Because of their biomedical and public health significance, and the lack of literature and compiled data on parasitic zoonoses of dogs in India, the authors provide a concise review on this topic along with potential control strategies.

Les chiens jouent un rôle précieux dans les sociétés humaines. En plus de servir d'animaux de compagnie, les chiens ont, depuis toujours, une fonction importante dans la chasse ainsi que, depuis peu, dans les thérapies assistées par l'animal. En Inde, on estime à environ 5 millions le nombre de chiens de compagnie. La population de chiens errants est estimée pour sa part à 19 millions d'individus et ne cesse de croître en raison de l'inefficacité des mesures de contrôle appliquées. Les chiens errants font peser des risques considérables sur la santé publique en raison des blessures qu'ils provoquent et de leur capacité à transmettre des zoonoses comme la rage. En outre, les chiens tant domestiques qu'errants sont des réservoirs potentiels pour nombre de parasites zoonotiques en Inde, pays dont le climat est propice à la survie de ces parasites dans l'environnement et à leur transmission. À l'heure actuelle, les zoonoses parasitaires les plus importantes en Inde sont le syndrome de larva migrans viscéral, le syndrome de larva migrans cutané et l'échinococcose. La leishmaniose, la dirofilariose, l'infection à Brugia malayi et la giardiose sont des zoonoses parasitaires émergentes potentiellement significatives tandis que la thélaziose, la gnathostomose et la dipylidiose font des incursions sporadiques. Compte tenu de l'importance biomédicale des maladies parasitaires zoonotiques du chien et de leur impact sur la santé publique en Inde, mais aussi du manque de publications scientifiques ou de données collectées les concernant, les auteurs font rapidement le point sur le sujet et proposent quelques stratégies de lutte possibles.

El perro cumple importantes funciones en la sociedad humana. Además de ser animal de compañía, también ha sido históricamente importante para la caza y, en los últimos tiempos, como animal terapéutico. Se calcula que en la India hay alrededor de 5 millones de perros que viven como mascota. Pero el país también alberga hoy, según los cálculos, una población de 19 millones de perros vagabundos, número que sigue creciendo debido a la ineficacia de las medidas de control. Estos perros suponen un importante riesgo para la salud pública, pues causan heridas y transmiten zoonosis como la rabia. El perro, ya sea mascota o vagabundo, puede ejercer de reservorio de parásitos zoonóticos en la India, cuyo clima favorece la supervivencia en el medio y la transmisión de muchos de tales parásitos. A día de hoy, las zoonosis parasitarias más importantes en el país son las de la larva migrante visceral, la larva migrante cutánea y la equinococosis. La leishmaniosis, la dirofilariosis, la infección por Brugia malayi y la giardiosis son zoonosis parasitarias emergentes que pueden llegar a cobrar importancia, mientras que la telaziosis, la gnatostomiosis y la dipilidiosis se dan esporádicamente. Los autores, dada la importancia que revisten las zoonosis parasitarias caninas desde el punto de vista biomédico y de salud pública, así como la falta de bibliografía y datos centralizados sobre su presencia en la India, hacen un breve repaso de la cuestión y apuntan a posibles estrategias de lucha.

Veterinary public health in India: current status and future needs.

Veterinary public health (VPH) assumes huge significance in developing countries such as India. However, the implementation of VPH services throughout the country is still in its infancy. From 1970 onwards, many institutes, national and international organisations, professional societies, policies and personalities have contributed towards the development of VPH in India. Nevertheless, there is an urgent need to develop VPH still further as there are many issues, such as high population density, the re-emergence of zoonotic pathogens, environmental pollution and antimicrobial resistance, that require attention. The time has surely come to involve all stakeholders, ranging from primary producers (e.g., farmers) to policy-makers, so as to garner support for the holistic implementation of VPH services in India. To improve VPH activities and services, science-based policies enforced through stringent regulation are required to improve human, animal and environmental health. The emergence of the 'One Health' concept has ushered in new hopes for the resurrection of VPH in India. Applying tools such as the World Organisation for Animal Health (OlE) Day One Competencies and the OlE Tool for the Evaluation of Performance of Veterinary Services (PVS Tool) is essential to improve the quality of national Veterinary Services and to identify gaps and weaknesses in service provision, which can be remedied to comply with the OlE international standards. VPH initiatives started modestly but they continue to grow. The present review is focused on the current status and future needs of VPH in India.

Is Brucella excreted in cattle faeces? - Evidence from Punjab, India.

Brucellosis is a neglected zoonosis that affects animals and people in much of the underdeveloped world. The disease is endemic in cattle in Punjab, India and controlling it is a public health challenge. Dairy farmers and farm labour commonly handle cattle faeces with bare hands and personal protective equipments are not used. No studies have been conducted about the shedding of Brucella species in faeces of sero positive cattle in the state. This study aimed to isolate and identify the Brucella species from faeces of sero positive cattle in Punjab, India. Faecal samples were collected from 350 Brucella sero positive cattle in Ludhiana district of Punjab, India. Isolation was performed using a pre-enriched Brucella selective broth medium as well as Brucella selective medium agar plates containing horse serum and Brucella selective supplements. Isolates were identified using Gram staining technique and rapid slide agglutination test, and then confirmed by using bcsp31 and 16s rRNA genus specific PCR. Isolates were further identified up to species level by using Bruce-Ladder multiplex PCR. Fourteen Brucella species were isolated, all of which showed coccobacilli on gram staining, positive rapid slide agglutination test and amplification of bcsp31 and 16s rRNA genes. Of the 14 isolates, 11 were identified as Brucella abortus and 3 were identified as Brucella melitensis. The study demonstrates that animal faeces could pose a potential risk for animal and human health and faeces of seropositive cattle must be handled with care.

Veterinary urban hygiene: a challenge for India.

India is confronted with many hygiene problems in urban areas that are related to animal populations. While some of these issues have been present for many years, others are only now emerging. A livestock census in 2003 and another in 2007 revealed that populations of crossbred cattle, goats and poultry are all increasing in urban areas, since this enables easy market access, which, in turn, reduces transportation costs and adds to profits. The canine population has increased along with the human population, largely due to a lack of control measures such as impounding stray animals and euthanasia. These increases in populations of both food-producing animals and stray animals in cities exacerbate such public health hazards as the transmission of zoonoses, vector-borne diseases, occcupational health hazards and environmental pollution, as well as compromising animal welfare. At present, public health hazards due to urban animal husbandry practices are considerably under-estimated. To improve veterinary-related urban hygiene and to facilitate livestock production operations in urban areas, there is an urgent need to develop sound, science-based strategies enforced through stringent regulations. The use of One Health teams may provide an answer to these highly integrated public health problems.

Prevalence of Brucella species in stray cattle, dogs and cats: A systematic review.

Stray animals are unowned free roaming, homeless, abandoned, street or sheltered animals, particularly dogs, cats and cattle. They could act as carrier of several zoonotic pathogens such as rabies virus, Mycobacterium and Brucella species. However, comprehensive information on the prevalence of zoonotic pathogens in stray animals is very limited. We conducted a systematic review as per Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines to estimate the prevalence of brucellosis in stray dogs, cats and cattle. Eligibility criteria for the study were determined using the PECOS classification (population, exposure, comparison, outcome, study design) as a tool to guide the research and adjust the search strategy. Major bibliographic databases [Web of Science, Medline, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar and PubMed] were searched using predefined keywords for published epidemiological studies on brucellosis in stray animals (dogs, cats and cattle). Systematic assessments of all the studies since 1990-2022 were conducted and those reporting the prevalence of brucellosis in stray dogs, cats and cattle using appropriate diagnostic tests (culture, molecular, serological) were included. Studies reporting prevalence of brucellosis (Brucella infection or exposure) in kennel dogs, dairy herds, livestock farms, humans or marine species were excluded. The apparent individual test- wise prevalence along with 95% confidence intervals (CI) was estimated using Epitools. Out of 2689 studies, 37 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the systematic review. Of 37 studies, 28 (75.7%) were conducted in stray dogs, 7 (18.9%) in cattle and 2 (5.4%) in cats. Furthermore, only 21.62% studies (8/37) used probabilistic random sampling approaches and 13.51% studies (5/37) explained and justified the study sample size using appropriate methods for estimation of disease prevalence in the study populations. Higher sero-prevalence in stray dogs has been reported in studies conducted in Jordan (38.0% (95% CI: 24.0-54.0) and Pakistan (38.0% (95% CI: 31.0-45.0) whereas no sero-positivity was recorded in the studies conducted in Brazil, North Colombia, Cyprus, South Korea and USA. All studies on brucellosis (n = 7) in stray cattle were from India; conducted in stray cattle reared in cow-shelters. Sero-prevalence in the range of 4.3%- 64.3% was reported in stray cattle. Differences in diagnostic tests and host species, as well as limited number and non-randomized studies and high statistical heterogeneity did not allow us to determine combined meta-analysed prevalence estimates. Stray animals are likely to pose a zoonotic and disease spillover risk to human and livestock populations.

Prevalence and risk factor investigation for exposure to Brucella species in surrogate stray cattle population reared in cow shelters in Punjab, India.

Bovine brucellosis is endemic in cattle in India, however not much is known on the prevalence of this disease in stray cattle populations of the country. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence and identify risk factors associated with brucellosis in the stray cattle populations reared in cow shelters (gaushalas) of Punjab, India. Blood samples were collected from 587 cattle reared in 23 cow shelters in 23 districts (one per district) of the Punjab and were tested using Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT), standard tube agglutination test (STAT) and Indirect Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (i-ELISA). Information on the sex and breed of the animal, total cattle population and presence of a separate shed for parturition were collected. An animal was considered exposed to Brucella infection based on a positive RBPT or STAT test and a positive i-ELISA test. Explanatory variables for the animal level disease status outcome variable were sex and breed of the animal and at the shelter level were shelter cattle population size and presence of a separate shed for parturition. Univariable binomial exact logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess the association of each explanatory variable with the binary outcome variable. Sixty-two animals were seropositive on RBPT, with an apparent seroprevalence of 10.56% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 8.33%, 13.31%) and the estimated true seroprevalence of 11.48% (95% CI: 8.9%, 14.64%). Sixty three animals were seropositive using STAT [apparent seroprevalence of 10.73% (95% CI: 8.48%, 13.50%) and the estimated true seroprevalence of 10.69% (95% CI: 8.27%, 13.67%)], and 68 using i-ELISA [an apparent seroprevalence of 11.58% (95% CI: 9.24%, 14.43%) and the estimated true seroprevalence of 13.28% (95% CI: 10.50%, 16.66%)]. Cross bred cattle had a lower risk of being test positive (odds ratio 0.16, p = 0.04) as compared to indigenous cattle. Due to a ban on cow slaughter in the country, roaming stray cattle infected with brucellosis present a permanent risk of introduction of disease to the dairy farms and other vulnerable populations.

Transcriptome-wide Gene Expression Analysis in Peri-implantitis Reveals Candidate Cellular Pathways.

OBJECTIVE: Peri-implantitis is a condition resulting in destructive inflammation in the peri-implant soft tissue barrier. Clinically, it demonstrates vast clinical differences to periodontitis that suggest distinct inflammatory mechanisms. Implant-derived titanium particles (i-TiPs) frequently found around diseased implants appear to alter the microenvironment and confer resistance to antibiotic treatments. Studies in orthopedic implants have demonstrated potent inflammatory responses to i-TiPs involving a variety of cell types in aseptic conditions. Nonetheless, the genetic programs of cells surveilling and supporting the peri-implant soft tissue barrier in response to the combined challenges of biomaterial degradation products and oral bacteria are poorly defined. Thus, we studied gene expression specific to oral peri-implant inflammatory disease. METHODS: Peri-implant tissues were collected from healthy or diseased implants (N = 10) according to the 2018 classification criteria. Following RNA extraction and purification, a gene-level view of the transcriptome was obtained via a next-generation transcriptome-wide microarray profiling workflow (Clariom S; Applied Biosystems) that covers >20,000 well-annotated genes. A discovery analysis assessed global differential expression of genes and identified pathways in peri-implant health versus disease. RESULTS: Genes involved in the endosomal-lysosomal pathway, such as actin polymerization, were strongly upregulated in diseased tissues (P < .05), proposing increased intracellular activities in response to bacteria and i-TiPs. Cellular respiration pathways involved in oxidative stress were highly transcribed in all peri-implant samples, suggesting that implant-specific factors may trigger a constant state of oxidative stress. CONCLUSION: Within the limitations of this discovery study, expressive upregulation of genes in the endosomal-lysosomal and oxidative stress pathway suggests that inflammation related to receptor-driven responses to extracellular signals, such as i-TiPs and pathogens, may have a crucial role in peri-implantitis. Results warrant external replication in validation cohorts. KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER STATEMENT: Our findings regarding physiologic processes affected by peri-implantitis could advance knowledge of the mechanisms and consequences of the disease. Understanding the cellular programs that partake in peri-implant inflammation has the potential to translate to novel treatment strategies for patients with peri-implantitis.

Seroprevalence and risk factor investigation for the exposure of Toxoplasma gondii among veterinary personnel in Punjab, India.

Toxoplasma gondii, a globally important food borne zoonotic parasite, infects most of the warm-blooded animals as well as people. Veterinarians and para vets are considered at risk of T. gondii exposure. We determined the seroprevalence of T. gondii in veterinary personnel and investigated the associated risk factors in Punjab, India. Two hundred and five blood samples collected from veterinary personnel were tested for the presence of Toxoplasma IgG and IgM antibodies using ELISA. The apparent and true seroprevalence of T. gondii with 95% confidence interval (CI) were estimated. Information about participant demographics, and possible routes of exposure was collected using a self-completed questionnaire at the time of blood collection. For risk factor investigation, a veterinary person was considered Toxoplasma seropositive using a combination of tests in parallel, i.e. if it was positive in either IgG or IgM ELISA. A mixed effects logistic regression model was constructed to evaluate the association of demography, occupational and non-occupational factors with Toxoplasma seropositive status. The apparent and estimated true seroprevalence of T. gondii antibodies using Toxoplasma IgG ELISA was 8.78% (95% CI 5.63-13.45%) and 7.36% (95% CI 4.04-12.29%), respectively. The apparent and estimated true seroprevalence using Toxoplasma IgM ELISA was 0.49% (95% CI inestimable - 2.71%) and 0.51% (95% CI inestimable - 2.83%), respectively. After adjusting other variables in the final model, consuming mutton and owning a cat were associated with large odds of being Toxoplasma seropositive. In this study occupational exposure does not seem to play an important role for the exposure of T. gondii in veterinary personnel in Punjab state of India. The seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in veterinary personnel is comparatively low in occupationally exposed veterinary personnel in Punjab, India.

Climate change, zoonoses and India.

Economic trends have shaped our growth and the growth of the livestock sector, but atthe expense of altering natural resources and systems in ways that are not always obvious. Now, however, the reverse is beginning to happen, i.e. environmental trends are beginning to shape our economy and health status. In addition to water, air and food, animals and birds play a pivotal role in the maintenance and transmission of important zoonotic diseases in nature. It is generally considered that the prevalence of vector-borne and waterborne zoonoses is likely to increase in the coming years due to the effects of global warming in India. In recent years, vector-borne diseases have emerged as a serious public health problem in countries of the South-East Asia region, including India. Vector-borne zoonoses now occur in epidemic form almost on an annual basis, causing considerable morbidity and mortality. New reservoir areas of cutaneous leishmaniosis in South India have been recognised, and the role of climate change in its re-emergence warrants further research, as does the role of climate change in the ascendancy of waterborne and foodborne illness. Similarly, climate change that leads to warmer and more humid conditions may increase the risk of transmission of airborne zoonoses, and hot and drier conditions may lead to a decline in the incidence of disease(s). The prevalence of these zoonotic diseases and their vectors and the effect of climate change on important zoonoses in India are discussed in this review.

Parasitic zoonoses in India: an overview.

Parasitic zoonotic diseases are prevalent throughout India at varying rates. First reports of zoonotic parasites and new emerging diseases have been recorded in both the human and animal populations in recent decades. The prevalence of zoonotic parasites is likely to be an underestimate, owing to the lack of proper surveillance and the shortage of information about the existence of asymptomatic animal carriers. Emergence of diseases such as human echinococcosis/hydatidosis, neurocysticercosis, cryptosporidiosis and toxoplasmosis in those with acquired immune deficiency syndrome, together with the re-emergence of cutaneous leishmaniosis, poses a serious threat in India and the prevention and control of these parasitic zoonoses, and others, is a great challenge.

Prevalence and molecular characterisation of Echinococcus granulosus in disposed of bovine carcasses in Punjab, India.

Cystic echinococcosis is an important parasitic zoonosis across the globe. The disease is caused by Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato. Free access of dogs to the disposed of bovine carcasses is an important conducive factor for the persistence of E. granulosus in the environment, and thus, stray dogs play a critical role in the disease transmission in developing countries including India. There is lack of information on the status of E. granulosus in the disposed of bovine carcasses in India; however, this information would be helpful to plan future strategies and policies to control this parasite. We examined 85 bovine carcasses from the 7 selected carcasses disposal sites in Punjab. During the postmortem, internal organs were examined for the presence of hydatid cysts. Molecular characterization of Echinococcus spp. was performed by PCR followed by sequencing of partial COI gene. We report 21% (18/85) prevalence of hydatidosis in dispose of bovine carcasses. Age was reported as the significant risk factor (Chi square = 22.5, df = 2, p = 0) for hydatidosis in the studied population and this might be due to higher cumulative exposure to the environmental parasitic stage (E. granulosus eggs) with increase in age. Phylogenetic analysis showed that G1 (predominantly) and G3 strains of E. granulosus are circulating in bovine population in Punjab. Further, studies are needed to determine the strains of E. granulosus circulating in the stray dogs. Measures and policies to combat this problem in India should involve one health approach: a collaborative effort of medical and veterinary physicians.

Effect of oxfendazole to control Taenia solium cysticercosis in pigs in Punjab state of India.

Taenia solium cysticercosis is a neglected zoonosis prevalent in developing countries including India. The disease has a substantial health impact in India. The control of this disease in pigs would benefit both veterinary and public health. In view of this, the current study was designed to know the effectiveness of oxfendazole against T. solium in pigs reared in Punjab, India. A randomized controlled trail was designed with two groups of treatment (T1 and T2) and a control group. Pigs from ten different litters were selected. Pigs (4 months of age) from the same litter were randomly assigned into these three groups. Treatment 1 (T1) group pigs received oxfendazole@30 mg/kg body weight at 4 months of age, treatment 2 (T2) received oxfendazole@30 mg/kg body weight treatment at 9 months of age and the control group (C) received placebo at 4 months of age. Blood samples were collected at three intervals at the age of 4, 9 and 12 months. Sandwich antigenic ELISA was performed to determine the serological status of disease in pigs. Three piglets in treatment 1 were found positive at 4 months but were recorded seronegative in subsequent samplings. One pig in the control group was positive at 9 and 12 months of age. Results showed promising effects of oxfendazole for the control of T. solium cysticercosis in pigs of Punjab, India.

Identification of risk factors associated with Coxiella burnetii infection in cattle and buffaloes in India.

The etiological agent Coxiella burnetii is a highly infectious gram-negative bacterium that can affect multiple species. Many reports confirm its presence in humans, domestic ruminants and rodents in India. This study was aimed to investigate the risk factors associated with C. burnetii infection in bovine populations in Punjab, India. This study was conducted using a stratified two-stage random sampling approach. Twenty-two villages representing all districts of the state were selected. Bovine farmers were interviewed and detailed information about their management and husbandry practices was collected using a structured questionnaire. Blood, milk and genital swab samples were collected from the cattle and buffaloes owned by the farmers. An animal was declared C. burnetii infected by using a combination of tests in parallel, i.e. if it was positive in serological or molecular tests (IgG indirect ELISA or Trans-PCR assay). A herd was considered positive if at least one animal in the herd was declared C. burnetii infected using the above definition. Three binomial logistic regression models were constructed to evaluate the association of (a) geographical location, herd characteristics, and farm management practices with the herd status (herd model), (b) individual animal related factors with the C. burnetii infection status (individual animal model), and (c) production and health related factors with C. burnetii infection status in adult females (adult female model). We collected a total of 610 blood, 610 genital swabs and 361 milk samples from 378 cattle and 232 buffaloes in 179 herds/households. The practice of throwing away aborted materials outside the farm as compared to burial/burning (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 3.0, 95 % confidence interval [CI] 1.14-7.87, p = 0.02) was associated with larger odds of being a C. burnetii infected herd. On the other hand, separation of the animals from the rest of the herd during parturition had a protective effect for being a C. burnetii infected herd (adjusted OR 0.31, 95 % CI 0.18-0.77, p = 0.01). Being cattle as compared to buffalo (adjusted OR 3.37, 95 % CI 1.23-9.20, p = 0.02) and older (adjusted OR 3.37, 95 % CI 1.23-9.20, p = 0.02) were associated with larger odds of C. burnetii infection. The current study highlights that farm practices such as improper aborted material disposal and not separating the animals from the rest of the herd during parturition are important risks for the occurrence of C. burnetii infection in the bovine populations in the state.

Iodine incorporated in cell constituents during sensitization to radiation by iodoacetic acid.

Iodine atoms are incorporated in bacterial membrane proteins when cells are irradiated in the presence of iodoacetic acid labeled with iodine-131. Such atoms are produced on reaction of iodoacetic acid with the gamma ray-induced hydroxyl radicals in the surrounding medium.

Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in cattle and buffalo populations in Punjab, India.

Q fever is an important zoonosis of animal and public health significance but there is very limited information about its prevalence in the Punjab state of India. The current study was designed to estimate Q fever prevalence in cattle and buffalo populations of the state. We randomly selected 22 villages, one from each of the 22 districts of Punjab. Households in these villages were randomly selected using village voter lists to ensure representative sample collection. Blood, vaginal swab and milk samples were collected from the animals in these enrolled households. Serum samples were screened using Coxiella burnetii specific IgG ELISA whereas milk and genital swab samples were subjected to a Trans-PCR assay. The agreement (Cohan's Kappa) between shedding of C. burnetii in milk and genital secretions and between ELISA and Trans-PCR was estimated. The selected PCR products were sequenced, and phylogenetic analyses were performed. We collected 610 blood samples, 610 genital swabs and 361 milk samples from 610 bovines (378 cattle and 232 buffaloes) in 179 households. Considering all tests in parallel and after adjusting for clustering, we estimated an overall individual animal prevalence of Q fever of 7.0% (95% CI: 4.7, 9.4). There was a low agreement between shedding of C. burnetii in milk and genital secretion (kappa: 14.3%; 95% CI: 5.6, 22.9) and between ELISA and Trans-PCR (10.3%; 95% CI: 3.2, 17.4%). Phylogenetic analysis confirmed all samples to be of C. burnetii. The results suggest that the disease is present in the state and further epidemiological information should be collected to determine its zoonotic potential and its impact on animal and public health in Punjab, India.

Knowledge, attitude and practices relating to zoonotic diseases among livestock farmers in Punjab, India.

Zoonotic diseases cause significant health and economic impact in developing countries such as India. Many zoonotic diseases are prevalent in the livestock and as an occupational zoonosis in the livestock farmers in India. Lack of knowledge on the disease transmission, prevention and control measures is a potential high risk for the occurrence of zoonotic diseases in the livestock and its keepers in India. We conducted this study to understand knowledge, attitude and practices of livestock farmers regarding zoonoses. Five villages from each of the 22 districts of the state were conveniently selected (n = 110). Farmers available at village community sites were enrolled in the study and requested to complete a custom designed questionnaire (n = 558). In addition, livestock farmers attending basic livestock husbandry training were also surveyed (n = 301). Data from questionnaires was used to create three index variables: (a) knowledge score; (b) attitude score and (c) practice score. Association between demographic and other explanatory variables with knowledge score was evaluated using linear regression analyses. Similarly, the association between knowledge and attitude score with practice score was evaluated. Of the 859 participants, 685 (80%) livestock farmers had heard the term 'zoonoses' but only 345 (40%), 264 (31%) and 214 (25%) farmers were aware of the zoonotic nature of tuberculosis, Japanese encephalitis and taeniosis, respectively. For practices, 23% farmers reported consumption of raw milk and only 10% and 8% livestock farmers ever got their animals tested for brucellosis and tuberculosis, respectively. The low level of education and being a cattle farmer were negatively associated with the farmer's knowledge on zoonotic diseases. The attitude score was positively associated with the practice score of the participants. The results indicate need for educating the livestock farmers particularly those with a low level of education to reduce the health and economic impact of zoonotic diseases in India.

Risk factors for occupational Brucella infection in veterinary personnel in India.

Brucellosis is an important animal and human health issue in developing countries. This study aimed to identify risk factors associated with occupational Brucella infection in veterinary personnel in India. Blood samples were collected from 279 veterinary personnel working in the public sector. Sera were tested with rose bengal plate test (RBPT), standard tube agglutination test (STAT), and IgG and IgM ELISAs. Information about participant demographics, risk of exposure and infection control practices was collected using a self-completed questionnaire. The outcome measure of Brucella infection was created based on a positive RBPT or STAT test and a positive IgG ELISA test. Binomial logistic regression analyses were conducted to evaluate associations between explanatory variables and the outcome variable. Of the 279 participants, 61 (21.9%), 67 (24.0%), 55 (19.7%) and 150 (53.8%) were positive in RBPT, STAT, IgM and IgG ELISA, respectively. Compared to a trained veterinarian, veterinary pharmacists and animal handlers had greater odds of being test positive, suggesting that they were at greater risk of Brucella infection. Number of years spent working with animals was associated with greater odds of a person being positive for Brucella infection (p = .015). Counter-intuitively, those using personal protective equipment (PPE) for handling sick animals were found to be at greater risk, suggesting that either the use of PPE is inappropriate-making it ineffective-or that it is reverse association whereby those experiencing brucellosis symptoms start using PPE. Brucellosis is a common occupational zoonosis among veterinary personnel in India with the risk being higher in paraveterinary staff than veterinarians and in those who have been practicing for a longer period of time. Further investigations are required to clarify the effectiveness of PPE to reduce Brucella infection in veterinary personnel in India.

Estimation of the health and economic burden of human brucellosis in India.

High seroprevalence estimates of brucellosis in livestock species and humans in India suggest that the disease is a significant public health concern in the country. We developed an economic model and conducted an assessment of the impact of human brucellosis in India to describe the current situation to help formulate prevention and control strategies. Economic losses of human brucellosis were calculated based on the official records and the data from epidemiological surveys conducted in India. These data were used to estimate the disability adjusted life years (DALYs) due to human brucellosis. Uncertainty was incorporated in the model by applying probability distributions for certain input parameters. The analyses were further supplemented by conducting sensitivity analyses to determine which parameters had the biggest influence on the outcome of economic losses. The annual median losses due to human brucellosis were estimated to be Rs 627.5 million (uncertainty interval [95% UI] Rs 534.8-741.2 million; US $ 10.46 million) with a loss of Rs 442.3 million (95% UI 371.0-516.0; US $ 7.37 million) among adults and Rs 185.0 million (95% UI 124.0-255.0; US $ 3.08 million) among children. Human brucellosis in India caused a loss of 177 601 (95% UI 152 695-214 764) DALYs at the rate of 0.15 (95% UI 0.13-0.17) DALYs per thousand persons per year. The DALYs were found to be 0.29 (95% UI 0.08-0.70) per thousand persons per year in occupational and 0.13 (95% UI 0.06-0.18) in non-occupational adult population. This is the first systematic analysis of the health impact of human brucellosis in India and of indirect/production losses occurring due to human brucellosis anywhere in the world. The results indicate that brucellosis causes considerable economic losses and has a reasonable health impact, particularly among occupational groups. Intervention policies need to be strengthened to reduce the socio-economic impact of human brucellosis in India.

Exploring animal rabies endemicity to inform control programmes in Punjab, India.

Previous studies estimate that one-third of the annual global burden of rabies (~20,000 cases) occurs in India. Elimination of canine rabies is essential to reduce this burden. Surveillance of animal cases can assess both the risk to humans and the efficacy of control strategies. The objective of this study was to describe the spatial and temporal occurrence of reported confirmed cases of rabies in animals in Punjab, India, from 2004 to 2014. We analysed passive surveillance data on 556 samples submitted from 2004 to 2014 to GADVASU, Ludhiana, Punjab, India. Regression and time series analyses were conducted to understand seasonal and long-term variation of cases and identify cross-correlation of monthly cases between species. Spatio-temporal analyses assessed spatial autocorrelation of date of reporting, mean geographic centres of disease occurrence and clustering of cases using Kulldorff's space-time permutation statistic. The annual number of submissions and proportion of confirmed cases were consistent throughout 2004-2014. Most submissions (320; 57.6%) were confirmed rabies cases, including dogs (40.6%), buffalo (29.7%) and cattle (23.1%). Regression analysis of monthly cases in dogs showed seasonal variation with significant increases in cases in March and August. Monthly case numbers in buffalo decreased over time. Long-term temporal trend was not detected in dog and cattle cases. Time-series models identified significant cross-correlation between dog and buffalo cases, suggesting that buffalo cases were spillover events from dogs. Significant spatio-temporal variation or clusters of cases were not detected. These results indicate that rabies cases in animals-and therefore, the potential for exposure to humans-were temporally and spatially stable during 2004-2014 in Punjab, India. The endemic nature of rabies transmission in this region demands a coordinated, sustained control programme. This study provides baseline information for assessing the efficacy of rabies control measures and developing seasonally targeted dog vaccination and rabies awareness strategies.