Leveraging DNA-Methylation Quantitative-Trait Loci to Characterize the Relationship between Methylomic Variation, Gene Expression, and Complex Traits.

Characterizing the complex relationship between genetic, epigenetic, and transcriptomic variation has the potential to increase understanding about the mechanisms underpinning health and disease phenotypes. We undertook a comprehensive analysis of common genetic variation on DNA methylation (DNAm) by using the Illumina EPIC array to profile samples from the UK Household Longitudinal study. We identified 12,689,548 significant DNA methylation quantitative trait loci (mQTL) associations (p < 6.52 × 10-14) occurring between 2,907,234 genetic variants and 93,268 DNAm sites, including a large number not identified by previous DNAm-profiling methods. We demonstrate the utility of these data for interpreting the functional consequences of common genetic variation associated with > 60 human traits by using summary-data-based Mendelian randomization (SMR) to identify 1,662 pleiotropic associations between 36 complex traits and 1,246 DNAm sites. We also use SMR to characterize the relationship between DNAm and gene expression and thereby identify 6,798 pleiotropic associations between 5,420 DNAm sites and the transcription of 1,702 genes. Our mQTL database and SMR results are available via a searchable online database as a resource to the research community.

A Bidirectional Mendelian Randomization Study to evaluate the causal role of reduced blood vitamin D levels with type 2 diabetes risk in South Asians and Europeans.

CONTEXT: Multiple observational studies have reported an inverse relationship between 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations (25(OH)D) and type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, the results of short- and long-term interventional trials concerning the relationship between 25(OH)D and T2D risk have been inconsistent. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS: To evaluate the causal role of reduced blood 25(OH)D in T2D, here we have performed a bidirectional Mendelian randomization study using 59,890 individuals (5,862 T2D cases and 54,028 controls) from European and Asian Indian ancestries. We used six known SNPs, including three T2D SNPs and three vitamin D pathway SNPs, as a genetic instrument to evaluate the causality and direction of the association between T2D and circulating 25(OH)D concentration. RESULTS: Results of the combined meta-analysis of eight participating studies showed that a composite score of three T2D SNPs would significantly increase T2D risk by an odds ratio (OR) of 1.24, p = 1.82 × 10-32; Z score 11.86, which, however, had no significant association with 25(OH)D status (Beta -0.02nmol/L ± SE 0.01nmol/L; p = 0.83; Z score -0.21). Likewise, the genetically instrumented composite score of 25(OH)D lowering alleles significantly decreased 25(OH)D concentrations (-2.1nmol/L ± SE 0.1nmol/L, p = 7.92 × 10-78; Z score -18.68) but was not associated with increased risk for T2D (OR 1.00, p = 0.12; Z score 1.54). However, using 25(OH)D synthesis SNP (DHCR7; rs12785878) as an individual genetic instrument, a per allele reduction of 25(OH)D concentration (-4.2nmol/L ± SE 0.3nmol/L) was predicted to increase T2D risk by 5%, p = 0.004; Z score 2.84. This effect, however, was not seen in other 25(OH)D SNPs (GC rs2282679, CYP2R1 rs12794714) when used as an individual instrument. CONCLUSION: Our new data on this bidirectional Mendelian randomization study suggests that genetically instrumented T2D risk does not cause changes in 25(OH)D levels. However, genetically regulated 25(OH)D deficiency due to vitamin D synthesis gene (DHCR7) may influence the risk of T2D.

Assessing potential shared genetic aetiology between body mass index and sleep duration in 142,209 individuals.

Observational studies find an association between increased body mass index (BMI) and short self-reported sleep duration in adults. However, the underlying biological mechanisms that underpin these associations are unclear. Recent findings from the UK Biobank suggest a weak genetic correlation between BMI and self-reported sleep duration. However, the potential shared genetic aetiology between these traits has not been examined using a comprehensive approach. To investigate this, we created a polygenic risk score (PRS) of BMI and examined its association with self-reported sleep duration in a combination of individual participant data and summary-level data, with a total sample size of 142,209 individuals. Although we observed a nonsignificant genetic correlation between BMI and sleep duration, using LD score regression (rg = -0.067 [SE = 0.039], P = 0.092) we found that a PRS of BMI is associated with a decrease in sleep duration (unstandardized coefficient = -1.75 min [SE = 0.67], P = 6.13 × 10-7 ), but explained only 0.02% of the variance in sleep duration. Our findings suggest that BMI and self-reported sleep duration possess a small amount of shared genetic aetiology and other mechanisms must underpin these associations.

Bigmelon: tools for analysing large DNA methylation datasets.

MOTIVATION: The datasets generated by DNA methylation analyses are getting bigger. With the release of the HumanMethylationEPIC micro-array and datasets containing thousands of samples, analyses of these large datasets using R are becoming impractical due to large memory requirements. As a result there is an increasing need for computationally efficient methodologies to perform meaningful analysis on high dimensional data. RESULTS: Here we introduce the bigmelon R package, which provides a memory efficient workflow that enables users to perform the complex, large scale analyses required in epigenome wide association studies (EWAS) without the need for large RAM. Building on top of the CoreArray Genomic Data Structure file format and libraries packaged in the gdsfmt package, we provide a practical workflow that facilitates the reading-in, preprocessing, quality control and statistical analysis of DNA methylation data.We demonstrate the capabilities of the bigmelon package using a large dataset consisting of 1193 human blood samples from the Understanding Society: UK Household Longitudinal Study, assayed on the EPIC micro-array platform. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: The bigmelon package is available on Bioconductor (http://bioconductor.org/packages/bigmelon/). The Understanding Society dataset is available at https://www.understandingsociety.ac.uk/about/health/data upon request. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Assessing the robustness of sisVIVE in a Mendelian randomization study to estimate the causal effect of body mass index on income using multiple SNPs from understanding society.

The "some invalid, some valid instrumental variable estimator" (sisVIVE) is a lasso-based method for instrumental variables (IVs) regression of outcome on an exposure. In principle, sisVIVE is robust to some of the IVs in the analysis being invalid, in the sense of being related to the outcome variable through pathways not mediated by the exposure. In this paper, we consider the application of sisVIVE to a Mendelian randomization study in which multiple genetic variants are used as IVs to estimate the causal effect of body mass index on personal income in the presence of unobserved confounding. In addition to analyzing data from the large-scale longitudinal household survey Understanding Society, we conduct a simulation study to (a) assess the performance of sisVIVE in relation to that of competing robust methods like "MR-Egger" and "MR-Median" and (b) identify scenarios under which its absolute performance is poor. We find that sisVIVE outperforms alternative robust methods, in terms of mean-square error, across a wide range of scenarios, but that its performance is poor in absolute terms when the presence of indirect pleiotropy leads to failure of the "InSIDE" condition, which is not explicitly required for identification. We argue that this is because the consistency criterion for sisVIVE does not identify the true causal effect when InSIDE fails.

Socioeconomic Position and DNA Methylation Age Acceleration Across the Life Course.

Accelerated DNA methylation age is linked to all-cause mortality and environmental factors, but studies of associations with socioeconomic position are limited. Researchers generally use small selected samples, and it is unclear how findings obtained with 2 commonly used methods for calculating methylation age (the Horvath method and the Hannum method) translate to general population samples including younger and older adults. Among 1,099 United Kingdom adults aged 28-98 years in 2011-2012, we assessed the relationship of Horvath and Hannum DNA methylation age acceleration with a range of social position measures: current income and employment, education, income and unemployment across a 12-year period, and childhood social class. Accounting for confounders, participants who had been less advantaged in childhood were epigenetically "older" as adults: In comparison with participants who had professional/managerial parents, Hannum age was 1.07 years higher (95% confidence interval: 0.20, 1.94) for participants with parents in semiskilled/unskilled occupations and 1.85 years higher (95% confidence interval: 0.67, 3.02) for those without a working parent at age 14 years. No other robust associations were seen. Results accord with research implicating early life circumstances as critical for DNA methylation age in adulthood. Since methylation age acceleration as measured by the Horvath and Hannum estimators appears strongly linked to chronological age, researchers examining associations with the social environment must take steps to avoid age-related confounding.

Maternal gestational diabetes is associated with genome-wide DNA methylation variation in placenta and cord blood of exposed offspring.

Exposure of a developing foetus to maternal gestational diabetes (GDM) has been shown to programme future risk of diabetes and obesity. Epigenetic variation in foetal tissue may have a mechanistic role in metabolic disease programming through interaction of the pregnancy environment with gene function. We aimed to identify genome-wide DNA methylation variation in cord blood and placenta from offspring born to mothers with and without GDM. Pregnant women of South Asian origin were studied and foetal tissues sampled at term delivery. The Illumina HumanMethylation450 BeadChip was used to assay genome-wide DNA methylation in placenta and cord blood from 27 GDM exposed and 21 unexposed offspring. We identified 1485 cord blood and 1708 placenta methylation variable positions (MVPs) achieving genome-wide significance (adjusted P-value <0.05) with methylation differences of >5%. MVPs were disproportionately located within first exons. A bioinformatic co-methylation algorithm was used to detect consistent directionality of methylation in 1000 bp window around each MVP was observed at 74% of placenta and 59% of cord blood MVPs. KEGG pathway analysis showed enrichment of pathways involved in endocytosis, MAPK signalling and extracellular triggers to intracellular metabolic processes. Replication studies should integrate genomics and transcriptomics with longitudinal sampling to elucidate stability, determine causality for translation into biomarker and prevention studies.

Maternal VDR variants rather than 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration during early pregnancy are associated with type 1 diabetes in the offspring.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: We investigated whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration in the metabolic pathway of vitamin D show different genotype distributions between Finnish families with an offspring with type 1 diabetes (cases) and families with a healthy offspring (controls). METHODS: A total of 31 SNPs in eight genes were studied in case and control mothers and family members (offspring with type 1 diabetes and healthy siblings, healthy control children and fathers) (n = 2,854). The 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration was studied in 474 case and 348 matched control mothers during pregnancy. RESULTS: The genotype distributions of 13 SNPs (in the following genes: 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase NADSYN1/DHCR7, vitamin D receptor VDR, group-specific component GC and CYP27A1) that showed a nominal association with 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration (p < 0.05) were compared between case and control families. SNPs in VDR had different genotype distributions between the case and control mothers (rs1544410, p = 0.007; rs731236, p = 0.003; rs4516035, p = 0.015), two SNPs (rs1544410 and rs731236) remaining significant after correction for multiple testing using a false discovery rate. The mean 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations during pregnancy did not differ between the case and control mothers. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Our preliminary results suggest that the maternal genotypes of SNPs in VDR may influence the in utero environment and thus contribute to the early programming of type 1 diabetes in the fetus. It is possible that the effects are only relevant in the presence of vitamin D insufficiency.

ANGPTL4 E40K and T266M: effects on plasma triglyceride and HDL levels, postprandial responses, and CHD risk.

BACKGROUND: Angiopoietin-like 4 is a dual-function protein: an inhibitor of LPL, influencing plasma triglycerides (TGs), with angiogenic properties. We examined the association of common ANGPTL4 variants with CHD traits and risk in 5 studies (13,527 individuals). METHODS AND RESULTS: The effects on plasma lipids of 6 tagging SNPs and the recently identified E40K were examined in a study of 2772 men. Only T266M (rs1044250, MAF=30%) and E40K (MAF=2%) were significantly associated with TG-lowering (-10.4%, P<0.004 and -20.4%, P<0.0001), respectively. T266M no longer showed significant associations when K40 carriers (K40+) were excluded (P=0.2). Combining data from 5 studies confirmed the TG-lowering effect of K40+ (weighted mean difference: -0.12 [95% CI -0.18, -0.05] mmol/L TG P=0.0001). Surprisingly, in the 3 prospective studies, the combined OR for CHD was 1.48 (1.11 to 1.96, P=0.007), independent of TG. In individuals with a paternal history of MI (n=332) T266M, but not E40K, showed effects on postprandial AUC TG and glucose (P=0.009 and P=0.017, respectively) compared to controls (n=370). CONCLUSIONS: Although associated with an atheroprotective lipid profile, E40K was associated with increased CHD risk, suggesting Angptl4 influences parameters beyond lipid levels. T266M showed effects only under conditions of postprandial stress. The functionality of these potential "loss-of-function" variants needs validation.

ADIPOQ gene polymorphism rs1501299 interacts with fibre intake to affect adiponectin concentration in children: the GENe-Diet Attica Investigation on childhood obesity.

BACKGROUND: Adiponectin, an adipose-derived hormone with central and peripheral actions, is involved in the regulation of energy homeostasis. Interactions between genetic and environmental factors have been associated with decrease in circulating adiponectin leading to obesity. AIM: We investigated whether variants of the ADIPOQ gene encoding adiponectin interact with diet to predict serum adiponectin concentration. METHODS: A cross-sectional study of healthy school-aged children of Greek origin (n = 991), aged 11.2 +/- 0.6 years was conducted in 2005-2006. DNA was genotyped for two SNPs [rs1501299 (n = 741) and rs17300539 (n = 713)] located in the ADIPOQ gene. Detailed dietary, behavioural, lifestyle, anthropometric and biochemical data were recorded for all participants. RESULTS: Both SNPs were in HWE. The rs1501299 (GG vs GT + TT) x fibre interaction was significantly associated with adiponectin concentration (P = 0.028). When fibre intake was low, GG homozygotes exhibited significantly higher adiponectin concentrations compared to T allele carriers (mean +/- SD = 5.1 +/- 2.7 vs 4.2 +/- 2.3; P = 0.020). CONCLUSIONS: In the present study, the rs1501299 x fibre interaction was significantly associated with adiponectin levels; in specific, GG homozygotes exhibited higher adiponectin levels compared to T carriers under conditions of lower fibre intake.

Systematic underestimation of the epigenetic clock and age acceleration in older subjects.

BACKGROUND: The Horvath epigenetic clock is widely used. It predicts age quite well from 353 CpG sites in the DNA methylation profile in unknown samples and has been used to calculate "age acceleration" in various tissues and environments. RESULTS: The model systematically underestimates age in tissues from older people. This is seen in all examined tissues but most strongly in the cerebellum and is consistently observed in multiple datasets. Age acceleration is thus age-dependent, and this can lead to spurious associations. The current literature includes examples of association tests with age acceleration calculated in a wide variety of ways. CONCLUSIONS: The concept of an epigenetic clock is compelling, but caution should be taken in interpreting associations with age acceleration. Association tests of age acceleration should include age as a covariate.

Multivariate genome-wide analyses of the well-being spectrum.

We introduce two novel methods for multivariate genome-wide-association meta-analysis (GWAMA) of related traits that correct for sample overlap. A broad range of simulation scenarios supports the added value of our multivariate methods relative to univariate GWAMA. We applied the novel methods to life satisfaction, positive affect, neuroticism, and depressive symptoms, collectively referred to as the well-being spectrum (Nobs = 2,370,390), and found 304 significant independent signals. Our multivariate approaches resulted in a 26% increase in the number of independent signals relative to the four univariate GWAMAs and in an ~57% increase in the predictive power of polygenic risk scores. Supporting transcriptome- and methylome-wide analyses (TWAS and MWAS, respectively) uncovered an additional 17 and 75 independent loci, respectively. Bioinformatic analyses, based on gene expression in brain tissues and cells, showed that genes differentially expressed in the subiculum and GABAergic interneurons are enriched in their effect on the well-being spectrum.

The effect of age and gender on the genetic regulation of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D - the FIN-D2D population-based study.

In addition to sunlight and dietary sources, several genes in the metabolic pathway of vitamin D affect serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) concentration. It is not known whether this genetic regulation is influenced by host characteristics. We investigated the effect of age and gender on the genetic regulation of serum 25OHD concentration. In total, 2868 Finnish men and women aged 45-74 years participated in FIN-D2D population-based health survey in 2007. Of the 2822 participants that had serum 25OHD concentration available, 2757 were successfully genotyped. Age and gender-dependent association of SNPs with serum 25OHD concentration was studied in 10 SNPs with previously found association with vitamin D metabolites. Associations of 3 SNPs with serum 25OHD concentration were dependent on age with greater effects on younger (≤60 y) than older (>60 y) adults (rs10783219 in VDR, rs12512631 in GC and rs3794060 in NADSYN1/DHCR7; pinteraction = 0.03, 0.02 and 0.01, respectively). The results suggested a novel association between serum 25OHD concentration and rs8082391 in STAT5B gene in men but not in women (pinteraction = 0.01). After multiple testing correction with false discovery rate method, two age-dependent interactions (rs3794060 in NADSYN1/DHCR7 gene and rs12512631 in GC gene) remained statistically significant. This is the first study to suggest that genetic regulation of serum 25OHD concentration is age-dependent. Our results also indicated a novel association between serum 25OHD concentration and SNP in STAT5B gene in men. The results need to be confirmed in future studies preferably in a larger sample.

The potential of BORIS detected in the leukocytes of breast cancer patients as an early marker of tumorigenesis.

PURPOSE: Brother of the regulator of imprinted sites (BORIS) is a novel member of the cancer-testis antigen gene family. These genes are normally expressed only in spermatocytes but abnormally activated in different malignancies, including breast cancer. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression of BORIS in the leukocytes of breast cancer patients and the correlation between BORIS levels and clinical/pathologic variables. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Leukocytes were obtained from whole blood of 87 breast cancer patients and 52 donors not diagnosed with cancer. BORIS protein was detected in leukocytes by immunohistochemical staining; the immunoreactivity score (IRS) of each sample was determined. Additionally, BORIS expression was assessed by Western blot analysis and real-time reverse transcription-PCR. RESULTS: We describe significantly high levels of BORIS (IRS = 4.25 +/- 0.034) in a subpopulation of leukocytes, the neutrophil polymorphonuclear granulocytes, in 88.5% of breast cancer patients. Increased IRS for BORIS in these patients correlated with increased tumor size. In comparison, 19.2% samples from the control group were BORIS positive with only very low levels of BORIS (IRS = 0.25 +/- 0.009). CONCLUSION: We report here the novel finding of BORIS expression in polymorphonuclear granulocytes of breast cancer patients. This tumor-related occurrence is a phenomenon not observed in donors with injuries and immune and inflammatory diseases. Detection of BORIS in a high proportion of patients with various types of breast tumors indicates that BORIS can be a valuable early blood marker of breast cancer. We conclude that BORIS represents a new class of cancer biomarkers different from those currently used in medical practice.

Genetic determinants of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration during pregnancy and type 1 diabetes in the child.

OBJECTIVE: The in utero environment plays an important role in shaping development and later life health of the fetus. It has been shown that maternal genetic factors in the metabolic pathway of vitamin D associate with type 1 diabetes in the child. In this study we analyzed the genetic determinants of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD) concentration during pregnancy in mothers whose children later developed type 1 diabetes and in control mothers. STUDY DESIGN: 474 mothers of type 1 diabetic children and 348 mothers of non-diabetic children were included in the study. We previously selected 7 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in four genes in the metabolic pathway of vitamin D vitamin based on our previously published data demonstrating an association between genotype and serum 25OHD concentration. In this re-analysis, possible differences in strength in the association between the SNPs and serum 25OHD concentration in mothers of type 1 diabetic and non-diabetic children were investigated. Serum 25OHD concentrations were previously shown to be similar between the mothers of type 1 diabetic and non-diabetic children and vitamin D deficiency prevalent in both groups. RESULTS: Associations between serum 25OHD concentration and 2 SNPs, one in the vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene (rs4516035) and one in the group-specific component (GC) gene (rs12512631), were stronger during pregnancy in mothers whose children later developed type 1 diabetes than in mothers whose children did not (pinteraction = 0.03, 0.02, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: We show for the first time that there are differences in the strength of genetic determinants of serum 25OHD concentration during pregnancy between the mothers of type 1 diabetic and non-diabetic children. Our results emphasize that the in utero environment including maternal vitamin D metabolism should be important lines of investigation when searching for factors that lead to early programming of type 1 diabetes.

Gene-environment interactions between education and body mass: Evidence from the UK and Finland.

More education is associated with a lower body mass index (BMI) and likelihood of being overweight. However, since a large proportion of the variation in body mass is due to genetic makeup, it has been hypothesized that education may moderate the genetic risk. We estimate main associations between (i) education, (ii) genetic risk, and (iii) interactions between education and genetic risk on BMI and the probability of being overweight in the UK and Finland. The estimates show that education is negatively associated with BMI and overweightness, and genetic risk is positively associated. However, the interactions between education and genetic risk are small and statistically insignificant.

Genome-wide analysis of health-related biomarkers in the UK Household Longitudinal Study reveals novel associations.

Serum biomarker levels are associated with the risk of complex diseases. Here, we aimed to gain insights into the genetic architecture of biomarker traits which can reflect health status. We performed genome-wide association analyses for twenty serum biomarkers involved in organ function and reproductive health. 9,961 individuals from the UK Household Longitudinal Study were genotyped using the Illumina HumanCoreExome array and variants imputed to the 1000 Genomes Project and UK10K haplotypes. We establish a polygenic heritability for all biomarkers, confirm associations of fifty-four established loci, and identify five novel, replicating associations at genome-wide significance. A low-frequency variant, rs28929474, (beta = 0.04, P = 2 × 10-10) was associated with levels of alanine transaminase, an indicator of liver damage. The variant is located in the gene encoding serine protease inhibitor, low levels of which are associated with alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency which leads to liver disease. We identified novel associations (rs78900934, beta = 0.05, P = 6 × 10-12; rs2911280, beta = 0.09, P = 6 × 10-10) for dihydroepiandrosterone sulphate, a precursor to major sex-hormones, and for glycated haemoglobin (rs12819124, beta = -0.03, P = 4 × 10-9; rs761772, beta = 0.05, P = 5 × 10-9). rs12819124 is nominally associated with risk of type 2 diabetes. Our study offers insights into the genetic architecture of well-known and less well-studied biomarkers.

Vitamin D and cognitive function: A Mendelian randomisation study.

The causal nature of the association between hypovitaminosis D and poor cognitive function in mid- to later-life is uncertain. Using a Mendelian randomisation(MR) approach, we examined the causal relationship between 25(OH)D and cognitive function. Data came from 172,349 participants from 17 cohorts. DHCR7(rs12785878), CYP2R1 rs12794714) and their combined synthesis score were chosen to proxy 25(OH)D. Cognitive tests were standardised into global and memory scores. Analyses were stratified by 25(OH)D tertiles, sex and age. Random effects meta-analyses assessed associations between 25(OH)D and cognitive function. Associations of serum 25(OH)D with global and memory-related cognitive function were non-linear (lower cognitive scores for both low and high 25(OH)D, p curvature ≤ 0.006), with much of the curvature attributed to a single study. DHCR7, CYP2R1, and the synthesis score were associated with small reductions in 25(OH)D per vitamin D-decreasing allele. However, coefficients for associations with global or memory-related cognitive function were non-significant and in opposing directions for DHCR7 and CYP2R1, with no overall association observed for the synthesis score. Coefficients for the synthesis score and global and memory cognition were similar when stratified by 25(OH)D tertiles, sex and age. We found no evidence for serum 25(OH)D concentration as a causal factor for cognitive performance in mid- to later life.

Novel DNA methylation profiles associated with key gene regulation and transcription pathways in blood and placenta of growth-restricted neonates.

Fetal growth is determined by the feto-placental genome interacting with the maternal in utero environment. Failure of this interplay leads to poor placental development and fetal growth restriction (FGR), which is associated with future metabolic disease. We investigated whether whole genome methylation differences existed in umbilical cord blood and placenta, between gestational-matched, FGR, and appropriately grown (AGA) neonates. Using the Infinium HumanMethylation450 BeadChip®, we found that DNA from umbilical cord blood of FGR born at term (n = 19) had 839 differentially methylated positions (DMPs) that reached genome-wide significance compared with AGA (n = 18). Using gestational age as a continuous variable, we identified 76,249 DMPs in cord blood (adj. P < 0.05) of which 121 DMPs were common to the 839 DMPs and were still evident when comparing 12 FGR with 12 AGA [39.9 ± 1.2 vs. 40.0 ± 1.0 weeks (mean ± SD), respectively]. A total of 53 DMPs had a ß methylation difference >10% and 25 genes were co-methylated more than twice within 1000 base pairs. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis of DMPs supported their involvement in gene regulation and transcription pathways related to organ development and metabolic function. A similar profile of DMPs was found across different cell types in the cord blood. At term, no DMPs between FGR and AGA placentae reached genome-wide significance, validated with an external dataset. GO analysis of 284 pre-term, placental DMPs associated with autophagy, oxidative stress and hormonal responses. Growth restricted neonates have distinct DNA methylation profiles in pre-term placenta and in cord blood at birth, which may predispose to future adult disease.