Cannabis use and posttraumatic stress disorder: prospective evidence from a longitudinal study of veterans.

BACKGROUND: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the most highly co-occurring psychiatric disorder among veterans with cannabis use disorder (CUD). Despite some evidence that cannabis use prospectively exacerbates the course of PTSD, which in turn increases the risk for CUD, the causal nature of the relationship between cannabis and psychiatric comorbidity is debated. The longitudinal relationship between PTSD diagnosis and traumatic intrusion symptoms with cannabis use and CUD was examined using cross-lagged panel model (CLPM) analysis. METHODS: Prospective data from a longitudinal observational study of 361 veterans deployed post-9/11/2001 included PTSD and CUD diagnoses, cannabis use, and PTSD-related traumatic intrusion symptoms from the Inventory of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms. RESULTS: A random intercept CLPM analysis that leveraged three waves (baseline, 6 months and 12 months) of cannabis use and PTSD-related intrusion symptoms to account for between-person differences found that baseline cannabis use was significantly positively associated with 6-month intrusion symptoms; the converse association was significant but reduced in magnitude (baseline use to 6-month intrusions: ß = 0.46, 95% CI 0.155-0.765; baseline intrusions to 6-month use: ß = 0.22, 95% CI -0.003 to 0.444). Results from the two-wave CLPM reveal a significant effect from baseline PTSD to 12-month CUD (ß = 0.15, 95% CI 0.028-0.272) but not from baseline CUD to 12-month PTSD (ß = 0.12, 95% CI -0.022 to 0.262). CONCLUSIONS: Strong prospective associations capturing within-person changes suggest that cannabis use is linked with greater severity of trauma-related intrusion symptoms over time. A strong person-level directional association between PTSD and CUD was evident. Findings have significant clinical implications for the long-term effects of cannabis use among individuals with PTSD.

The role of alcohol and cannabis co-use in drinking rate and its impact on consequences.

BACKGROUND: The impact of alcohol and cannabis co-use on college student drinking and related outcomes is complex. Specific characteristics or patterns of co-use events beyond drinking quantity may be important to the experience of consequences. The present study used repeated daily surveys to examine the association between co-use (versus use of alcohol only) and drinking rate on negative consequences. METHODS: The sample included 318 college students (Mage  = 19.8, 47% female, 76% non-Hispanic White) who were co-users of alcohol and cannabis, recruited from three U.S. college campuses. Participants completed 56 days of data collection (number of drinking days ranged from 1 to 38). Two measures of drinking rate were examined: (1) daily rate (number of drinks divided by number of hours spent drinking per day); and (2) peak hour rate (maximum number of drinks consumed in a single hour) to account for anomalous drinking days of long duration. Generalized linear mixed models examined: (1) associations of co-use with peak hour rate (model 1a) and daily rate (model 1b); (2) associations of peak hour rate (model 2a) and daily rate (model 2b) with experiencing any negative consequence; and (3) interactions of co-use with peak hour rate (model 3a) and daily rate (model 3b) on experiencing a consequence. RESULTS: Co-use was positively associated with peak hour rate but not daily rate. Both peak hour and daily rate positively predicted likelihood of experiencing a negative consequence. The interaction of both peak hour and daily rate by co-use was significant such that the association of rate with experiencing a consequence was stronger on alcohol-only days compared to co-use days. CONCLUSIONS: Daily drinking rate and peak hour drinking rate are unique and should be considered when discussing drinking patterns. Both predict negative consequences and may be important aspects of interventions for negative drinking-related outcomes among college students.

Discussion of alcohol consequences during a brief motivational intervention session: Comparing those who do and do not increase readiness to change.

The present study was designed to take an inductive, qualitative approach to understanding how discussion of alcohol-related consequences during brief motivational interventions (BMI) relate to readiness to change (RTC) prior to versus at the end of a session. Participants were thirty-four adults (35% female) recruited from the emergency room and enrolled in a randomized clinical trial of a BMI for risky alcohol use and risky sex. Seventeen participants both began and remained low on RTC over the course of the session. We selected 17 additional participants, matched on demographics, but who increased RTC over the session. Transcripts were qualitatively coded and analyzed separately within groups. Among participants who increased their RTC relative to participants who remained low on RTC by BMI end, evaluation of alcohol consequences as negative was more typical. In both groups, several consequences were neutrally evaluated. Many who remained low on RTC attributed consequences to something other than alcohol and/or minimized consequence severity. Study findings highlight the value for clinicians in eliciting and maximizing the importance of subjectively negative recent consequences to perhaps increase heavy drinkers' readiness to decrease heavy alcohol use.

Changes in Alcohol Use and Drinking Context due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Multimethod Study of College Student Drinkers.

BACKGROUND: In spring 2020, U.S. universities closed campuses to limit the transmission of COVID-19, resulting in an abrupt change in residence, reductions in social interaction, and in many cases, movement away from a heavy drinking culture. The present mixed-methods study explores COVID-19-related changes in college student drinking. We characterize concomitant changes in social and location drinking contexts and describe reasons attributed to changes in drinking. METHODS: We conducted two studies of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on drinking behavior, drinking context, and reasons for both increases and decreases in consumption among college students. Study 1 (qualitative) included 18 heavy-drinking college students (Mage  = 20.2; 56% female) who completed semi-structured interviews. Study 2 (quantitative) included 312 current and former college students who reported use of alcohol and cannabis (Mage  = 21.3; 62% female) and who completed an online survey. RESULTS: In both studies, COVID-19-related increases in drinking frequency were accompanied by decreases in quantity, heavy drinking, and drunkenness. Yet, in Study 2, although heavier drinkers reduced their drinking, among non-heavy drinkers several indices of consumption increased or remained stable . Both studies also provided evidence of reductions in social drinking with friends and roommates and at parties and increased drinking with family. Participants confirmed that their drinking decreased due to reduced social opportunities and/or settings, limited access to alcohol, and reasons related to health and self-discipline. Increases were attributed to greater opportunity (more time) and boredom and to a lesser extent, lower perceived risk of harm and to cope with distress. CONCLUSION: This study documents COVID-19-related changes in drinking among college student drinkers that were attributable to changes in context, particularly a shift away from heavy drinking with peers to lighter drinking with family. Given the continued threat of COVID-19, it is imperative for researchers, administrators, and parents to understand these trends as they may have lasting effects on college student drinking behaviors.

Forgoing plans for alcohol and cannabis use in daily life: Examining reasons for nonuse when use was planned in a predominantly white college student sample.

BACKGROUND: The reasons for college students to abstain from alcohol and cannabis use on a given day can inform efforts to prevent or intervene in those behaviors. Research on reasons for alcohol nonuse remains in its nascent stages and no study to date has examined reasons for cannabis nonuse on a given day. Here we examine reasons for nonuse among college students after they planned to use alcohol and/or cannabis. METHODS: College students (N = 341; Mage  = 19.79; 53% women; 74% White) from 3 universities completed 54 days of data collection across which approximately 50% were nonuse days. Each morning, participants indicated whether they planned to use that day; nonuse reasons were assessed the next morning, if applicable. Generalized linear mixed-effects models were used to disentangle within- and between-person effects. RESULTS: On a given nonuse day (at the within-person level), "work" and "school" were reasons associated with having no plan to use alcohol and "to feel in control" was linked to having no plan to use cannabis. "Did not want to get high" was related to forgoing plans (did not use when originally planned) for alcohol use at the within-person level. At the between-person level, "no desire" was associated with no plans for alcohol or cannabis use and "did not want to get high" was related to no plans for cannabis use. "School" and "could not get" were related to forgoing plans for alcohol and cannabis use, respectively, at the between-person level. CONCLUSION: An examination of earlier intentions for alcohol and/or cannabis use on nonuse days yielded novel findings on the intention-behavior gap. Reasons for nonuse can inform intervention and prevention strategies (e.g., those involving social norms or just-in-time adaptive efforts) for alcohol and cannabis use on college campuses.

Does the Combination Matter? Examining the Influence of Alcohol and Cannabis Product Combinations on Simultaneous Use and Consequences in Daily Life.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol and marijuana/cannabis are frequently used simultaneously (i.e., SAM use). SAM use is complex, and the ways in which alcohol and cannabis are simultaneously used may reveal differential effects. The purpose of this study was to examine day-level effects of distinct alcohol and cannabis product combinations on simultaneous use and consequences on that day. METHODS: College student SAM users (N = 274; 50% women; Mage  = 19.82 years) were recruited to complete 54 days of data collection, including 5 repeated daily surveys each day. We identified 12 distinct product combinations reported during SAM-use days. We tested 4 reference groups, with one reflecting the most common use pattern and 3 potentially risky use patterns. We considered 3 outcomes (negative consequences, number of drinks, and number of cannabis uses) and used generalized linear mixed-effects models disentangling within- from between-person effects in all analyses. RESULTS: Using multiple products (≥2) of alcohol was consistently linked to higher odds of experiencing a negative consequence. Combining beer with only one cannabis product (leaf or concentrate) was consistently associated with lower odds of a consequence. Combining cannabis with multiple alcohol products was associated with heavier alcohol consumption. Using dual cannabis products also was associated with heavier cannabis consumption, but this pattern was not significantly different than using concentrate only on a given day. CONCLUSION: This is the first study to examine day-level influences of distinct alcohol and cannabis product combinations on consumption and consequences among young adult SAM users. Findings suggest that mixing alcohol products confers greater risk for negative consequences and heavier consumption, whereas there is little difference in cannabis consumption when using concentrate only vs. 2 cannabis products on a given day, except for concentrate + beer. Our findings support existing protective strategies of not mixing alcohol products and avoiding use of cannabis concentrate for SAM use as well.

Heaviness of Alcohol Use, Alcohol Problems, and Subjective Intoxication Predict Discrepant Drinking Reports in Daily Life.

BACKGROUND: Self-reported consumption is pervasive in alcohol research, though retrospective recall bias is a concern. Fine-grained methods are designed to limit retrospection; yet, discrepancies can arise when comparing responses on fine-grained surveys with responses to retrospective surveys across weeks or months. Many fine-grained studies use both repeated daily surveys (RDS) and end-of-day (EOD) summaries, but little research has examined whether these survey types are consistent. The purpose of this study was to quantify the magnitude and directionality of discrepancy between EOD summaries and RDS and identify alcohol-related predictors of discrepancy. METHODS: As a part of a larger study, college student alcohol and cannabis users (N = 341; 53% women; Mage  = 19.79 years) were recruited to complete 56 days of data collection, including 5 daily assessments of their substance use and related constructs, one of which included an EOD summary of the previous day. Generalized linear mixed-effects models were used to examine between- and within-person predictors of a 5-category, discrepancy outcome: no discrepancy, low discrepancy where RDS < EOD, low discrepancy where EOD < RDS, high discrepancy where RDS < EOD, and high discrepancy where EOD < RDS. RESULTS: Discrepancies between EOD and RDS were observed in both directions. Alcohol problems predicted more alcohol consumption reported on the EOD survey than across RDS. Within-person alcohol quantity and hourly rate of consumption were most strongly related to less alcohol consumption reported on the EOD survey. Between- and within-person peak subjective intoxication and within-person liquor consumption were associated with discrepancies in both directions. CONCLUSIONS: Surveys requiring more retrospection may overestimate alcohol consumption in problematic drinkers and underestimate consumption on days where more alcohol is consumed than typical. Evidence also suggests that greater day-to-day instability in alcohol behavior is linked to less consistent reporting overall. More research is needed to discern factors contributing to inconsistent reporting on fine-grained surveys to maximize the validity of reports.

Changes in negative urgency, positive urgency, and sensation seeking across adolescence.

The development and potential co-development of traits related to impulsivity and sensation seeking across adolescence has garnered substantial attention within the extant literature. Some prior research suggests that facets show distinct patterns of change across adolescence and that intraindividual changes in these traits may be unrelated. However, the extant literature is somewhat hampered by measurement issues and inconsistent findings. Using an accelerated longitudinal design in a sample of adolescents (n = 1018; ages 11-16), changes in negative urgency, positive urgency, and sensation seeking were examined. The three facets showed similar trajectories across time (i.e., increasing during early adolescence before leveling off). Across all facets, there was strong evidence of correlated change, suggesting these traits are, developmentally, strongly related phenomena.

Attempting to successfully straddle the cultural divide: Hopelessness model of bicultural stress, mental health, and caregiver connection for Mexican descent adolescents.

The present study extends the Hopelessness Model of Depression through: (a) investigating the applicability of bicultural stress as precipitant in this model, (b) expanding mental health outcomes in addition to depression (i.e., life satisfaction), and (c) examining the protective role that male and female caregiver connection may play in disrupting this model for Mexican descent adolescents. With a sample of 524 Mexican descent adolescents (46.9% male; 53.1% female; age range: 14-20; M = 16.23 years; SD = 1.10 years), 2 structural equation models were tested, The first model (Theoretical Model) sought to determine the relationship between bicultural stress, life satisfaction, and depressive symptoms with hopelessness as a mediator. The second model (Protective Factor Model) investigated both male and female caregiver connectedness as potential protective factors in the bicultural stress-mental health relationships. Both models were supported. In the Theoretical Model, hopelessness mediated the relationship between bicultural stress and the mental health variables (i.e., depression and life satisfaction). Additionally, in the Protective Factor Model, female caregiver connection moderated the relationships between bicultural stress and life satisfaction, highlighting that female caregiver connection is a protective factor in the bicultural stress-life satisfaction relationship. Findings will be discussed from a resilience perspective with recommendations of how practitioners can use these findings for mental health prevention and intervention purposes.

Cannabis demand and use among veterans: A prospective examination.

OBJECTIVE: Cannabis demand (i.e., relative value), assessed cross-sectionally via a hypothetical marijuana purchase task (MPT), has been associated with use, problems, and dependence symptoms, among others. However, limited work exists on the prospective stability of the MPT. Furthermore, cannabis demand among veterans endorsing cannabis use, and the prospective cyclical relationship between demand and use over time, have yet to be investigated. METHOD: Two waves of data from a veteran sample (N = 133) reporting current (past 6-month) cannabis use were analyzed to assess stability in cannabis demand over 6 months. Autoregressive cross-lagged panel models (CLPMs) assessed the longitudinal associations between demand indices (i.e., intensity, Omax, Pmax, breakpoint) and cannabis use. RESULTS: Baseline cannabis use predicted greater intensity (ß = .32, p < .001), Omax (ß = .37, p < .001), breakpoint (ß = .28, p < .001), and Pmax (ß = .21, p = .017) at 6 months. Conversely, baseline intensity (ß = .14, p = .028), breakpoint (ß = .12, p = .038), and Pmax (ß = .12, p = .043), but not Omax, predicted greater use at 6 months. Only intensity demonstrated acceptable prospective reliability. CONCLUSIONS: Cannabis demand demonstrated stability over 6 months in CLPM models, varying along with natural changes in cannabis use. Importantly, intensity, Pmax, and breakpoint displayed bidirectional predictive associations with cannabis use, and the prospective pathway from use to demand was consistently stronger. Test-retest reliability ranged from good to poor across indices. Findings highlight the value of assessing cannabis demand longitudinally, particularly among clinical samples, to determine how demand fluctuates in response to experimental manipulation, intervention, and treatment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Prospective Associations Between Anxiety Sensitivity, Distress Intolerance, Depressive Symptoms, and Indices of Alcohol and Cannabis Use Among Veterans.

OBJECTIVE: There is substantial evidence linking anxiety sensitivity and distress intolerance to depressive symptoms, and further evidence linking depressive symptoms to alcohol and cannabis use. However, the prospective indirect associations of anxiety sensitivity and distress intolerance with alcohol and cannabis use through depressive symptoms remain uncertain. Thus, the current study examined whether depressive symptoms mediated the associations between anxiety sensitivity and distress intolerance with alcohol and cannabis use frequency, quantity, and problems in a longitudinal sample of veterans. METHOD: Participants (N = 361; 93% male; 80% White) were military veterans with lifetime cannabis use recruited from a Veterans Health Administration in the Northeastern United States. Eligible veterans completed three semi-annual assessments. Prospective mediation models were used to test for the effects of baseline anxiety sensitivity and distress intolerance on alcohol and cannabis use quantity, frequency and problems at 12 months via depressive symptoms at 6 months. RESULTS: Baseline anxiety sensitivity was positively associated with 12-month alcohol problems. Baseline distress intolerance was positively associated with 12-month cannabis use frequency and quantity. Baseline anxiety sensitivity and distress intolerance significantly predicted increased alcohol problems and cannabis use frequency at 12 months through depressive symptoms at 6 months. There were no significant indirect effects of anxiety sensitivity and distress intolerance on alcohol use frequency or quantity, cannabis use quantity, or cannabis problems. CONCLUSIONS: Anxiety sensitivity and distress intolerance share a common pathway to alcohol problems and cannabis use frequency through depressive symptoms. Interventions focused on modulating negative affectivity may reduce cannabis use frequency and alcohol problems.

Acute Consequences Associated With Co-use of Alcohol and Cannabis: A Daily Survey Analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Co-use of alcohol and cannabis has been associated with more total negative consequences than single-substance use, but results have been mixed depending on whether the single substance was alcohol or cannabis. The present study used within-person analyses to examine whether co-use increased the risk for experiencing specific acute negative consequences. METHOD: College students who were co-users of alcohol and cannabis (N = 341; M age = 19.8 years; 51.3% female; 74.8% White) completed 56 days of five daily surveys across two bursts. We used generalized linear mixed effects models to examine the effects of type of substance use day on specific negative consequences, controlling for consumption and covariates. RESULTS: Relative to both alcohol-only and co-use days, cannabis-only days were associated with decreased likelihood of experiencing hangover, blackout, nausea/vomiting, injury, rude/aggressive behavior, and unwanted sex. Relative to alcohol-only days, cannabis-only and co-use days were associated with an increased likelihood of driving high/drunk. Finally, there was an increased likelihood of hangovers on alcohol-only days compared with co-use days. CONCLUSIONS: Days with different types of substance use differed in specific consequences. Most of the negative co-use consequences investigated here appear to be driven by alcohol consumption rather than cannabis use. The results also indicated that these young adults were more likely to endorse driving under the influence of cannabis than alcohol. Interventions for co-use should target alcohol consumption to reduce negative consequences such as blackout, injury, rude/aggressive behavior, and unwanted sex and highlight the dangers of driving under the influence of cannabis.

Real-time and next-morning correlates of subjective alcohol consequence evaluations.

OBJECTIVE: There is considerable variation in how college student drinkers evaluate alcohol-related consequences across time and consequence type. Previous qualitative work suggested that students perceive consequences less negatively under certain circumstances (i.e., higher intoxication, when less time has passed, positive mood, after discussing with friends). The present study sought to confirm these patterns, using ecological momentary assessment (EMA) during drinking episodes paired with retrospective next-day assessments. METHOD: For 28 days, heavy-drinking college students (n = 90, 50% female) completed self-reports during drinking episodes and the next morning. Measures included alcohol use, subjective intoxication, mood, negative consequences (e.g., being aggressive) and positive consequences (e.g., new friend), and consequence-specific evaluations. RESULTS: Consistent with hypotheses, multilevel models revealed that during drinking events compared to the next morning, average evaluations of negative and positive consequences were less negative and more positive, respectively. During drinking events, neither subjective intoxication nor estimated blood alcohol concentration (eBAC) was associated with positive or negative evaluations. In morning reports, more positive mood was associated with less negative evaluations of negative consequences and more positive evaluations of positive consequences. Next-day discussion with friends was not significantly associated with consequence evaluations. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to assess subjective consequence evaluations in real time as well as retrospectively, for the same events. Findings continue to support the role of context (timing, mood) on subjective consequence evaluations, and suggest that ecological momentary interventions targeting alcohol consequences and related cognitions might best be delivered the morning after drinking, to capitalize on relatively more negative perceptions of one's drinking experiences. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Event-level contextual predictors of high-intensity drinking events among young adults.

BACKGROUND: Drinking events are characterized by social and physical contexts that are associated with level of alcohol consumption. Ecologically valid data is needed to delineate aspects of the drinking context that are most likely to precipitate excessive alcohol consumption. METHODS: We utilized event-level data from a longitudinal study that included repeated daily surveys administered in two 28-day bursts. Data from 341 college student past-month alcohol and cannabis users (Mage=19.79; 53 % women; 74 % White) produced a total of 4107 alcohol use days. Generalized linear mixed effects models were used to predict drinking level (moderate: 1-3/1-4 for women/men; heavy-episodic drinking (HED): 4-7/5-9; high-intensity drinking (HID), 8+/10+) by social (e.g., with friends) and physical (e.g., at a party) contexts. We conducted analyses for the first and last drink reported, controlling demographic and study characteristics. RESULTS: Being at a party, friend's house, or with strangers at the last drink reported were associated with HID compared to HED, while being at home, alone, or with family were protective for HID. No first drink contexts were associated with HID relative to HED. Witnessing others who were intoxicated was consistently associated with HID. CONCLUSIONS: Social settings such as parties and those with intoxicated persons were associated with risk for HID. The context of drinks at the end of an event are salient signals of level of alcohol consumption. Preventive interventions, particularly those that deliver strategies in real time, should consider accounting for contextual risk factors to reduce harms associated with excessive alcohol consumption.

Changes in Cannabis Consumption Among College Students During COVID-19.

OBJECTIVE: College campuses closed in March 2020 because of the COVID-19 pandemic, disrupting the lives of students. The goal of the present study was to examine whether cannabis use changed from before campus departures prompted by COVID-19 to after campus departures and after the semester ended--and if living situation explained observed changes. We also examined changes in specific formulations of cannabis and self-reported reasons for perceived changes in use frequency. METHOD: A sample of 223 college student cannabis users (61% female) from three universities completed two online surveys (one in May 2020 assessing cannabis use pre-campus closure [pre-closure] and since campus closed [post-closure-1], and another in September 2020 assessing cannabis use since remote classes ended [post-closure-2]). RESULTS: Any use of cannabis and use of each specific formulation (leaf, edibles, concentrates) declined from pre-closure to post-closure-1, whereas the frequency of use did not change. Any cannabis use declined for those who stayed living dependently or moved to dependent living. Leaf use declined for all groups, concentrate use declined only for those who moved from independent to dependent living, and edible use declined only for those who stayed living dependently or moved to dependent living. Cannabis use did not change between post-closure-1 and post-closure-2, regardless of living situation stability or transition. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, among a sample of cannabis-using college students, the prevalence of any cannabis use, but not frequency of use, was reduced during the pandemic. Living with parents appears to be protective against frequent cannabis use.

Comprehensive measurement invariance of alcohol outcome expectancies among adolescents using regularized moderated nonlinear factor analysis.

Alcohol outcomes expectancies (AOEs) are robust predictors of alcohol initiation and escalation of drinking behavior among adolescents. Although measurement invariance is a prerequisite for inferring valid comparisons of AOEs across groups (e.g., age), empirical evidence is lacking. In a secondary data analysis study, we employed regularized moderated nonlinear factor analysis (MNLFA) to simultaneously test differential item functioning (DIF) across age, sex, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), and alcohol initiation for a 22-item, two-factor measure of positive and negative AOEs among adolescents (analytic n = 936 drawn from a parent study of 1023 adolescents). Evidence of DIF was minimal, with no DIF for the negative AOE factor and DIF for only two items of the positive AOE factor. The item "feel grown up" exhibited DIF by age, and the item "feel romantic" exhibited DIF by SES. After accounting for DIF, the positive AOE latent factor mean differed by SES, age, and alcohol initiation, and exhibited lower variability by alcohol initiation. The negative AOE latent factor mean differed by sex and SES, with greater variability by SES and age and lower variability by alcohol initiation. Group-differences findings for age and alcohol initiation are consistent with prior work, and differences by sex and SES are a new contribution to the literature that should prompt additional research to ensure replicability. The present study demonstrates the utility of the MNLFA technique for examining comprehensive measurement invariance, particularly for applied researchers who seek to examine substantive research questions while accounting for any DIF present in the scales used.

Examining the heterogeneity of polysubstance use patterns in young adulthood by age and college attendance.

Substance use in young adulthood and polysubstance users (PSU), in particular, pose unique risks for adverse consequences. Prior research on young adult PSU has identified multiple classes of users, but most work has focused on college students. We examined PSU patterns by age and college attendance during young adulthood in two nationally representative samples. Using National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) Wave 1 and NESARC-III data sets, multigroup latent class analysis (MG-LCA) was employed to examine PSU patterns based on age (18-24 vs. 25-34) and determine whether solutions were similar (i.e., statistically invariant) by college attendance/graduation. Classes were estimated by binary past-year use of sedatives, tranquilizers, opioids/painkillers, heroin, amphetamines/stimulants, cocaine, hallucinogens, club drugs, and inhalants, and past-year frequency of alcohol, cigarette, and cannabis use. PSU patterns are largely replicated across waves. Model fit supported 3-class solutions in each MG-LCA: Low frequency-limited-range PSU (alcohol, cigarettes, and cannabis only), medium-to-high frequency limited-range PSU (alcohol, cigarettes, and cannabis only), and extended-range PSU (ER PSU; all substances). Apart from one model, MG-LCA solutions were not invariant by college attendance/graduation, suggesting important differences between these groups. Except for alcohol, cannabis, and cigarette use frequency, results showed that probabilities of illicit and prescription drug use declined in the older age group. Findings also supported examining college and noncollege youth separately when studying PSU. ER PSU may be uniquely vulnerable to coingesting substances, particularly for nongraduates, warranting future research to classify patterns of simultaneous PSU and identify predictors and consequences of high-risk combinations (e.g., alcohol and opioids). (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Understanding the motives, contexts, and consequences of unplanned versus planned drinking in daily life.

OBJECTIVE: Problematic alcohol use among college students remains a public health concern; thus, there is a need to understand distinct drinking events, such as unplanned and planned drinking. The present study examined motives and social and physical contexts as correlates of unplanned and planned drinking to help inform prevention and intervention. METHOD: College student alcohol and cannabis users (N = 341; 53% women) completed 56 days of data collection (two 28-day bursts) with five repeated daily surveys. Three-level generalized linear mixed-effects models were used to examine associations among motives, physical and social contexts, and unplanned versus planned drinking. We also examined whether unplanned or planned drinking resulted in greater consumption and negative consequences. RESULTS: Social and enhancement motives were related to planned drinking, whereas offered motives (i.e., offers of alcohol) and coping motives were linked to unplanned drinking. Drinking at home, with roommates, or alone was associated with unplanned drinking. Drinking at a bar/restaurant, a party, at a friend's place, with friends, with strangers/acquaintances, with a significant other, or with intoxicated people was linked to planned drinking. Unplanned drinking was related to fewer drinks consumed and fewer negative consequences endorsed. CONCLUSIONS: Findings showed that planned drinking-irrespective of consumption-was related to more negative consequences than unplanned drinking. In addition to targeting intentions to drink, the present study provided specific motives and social and physical contexts that are associated with planned drinking that could be incorporated into ecological momentary interventions focused on harm reduction. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Nuanced relations between simultaneous alcohol and cannabis use motives and negative consequences among college students: The role of multiple product use.

Simultaneous alcohol and marijuana (SAM) use is common, but it exacerbates negative consequences. Individuals use alcohol and cannabis products in different ways and have distinct reasons for use. The present study examines day-level effects of motives on consequences on SAM-use days, accounting for consumption, and tests whether using multiple alcohol (e.g., beer + liquor) and/or cannabis (e.g., concentrate + leaf) products on the same day mediates these relations. College students engaging in SAM use at least once in the past month (N = 281; Mage = 20.17) completed two bursts of 28 consecutive days of data collection. We examined within-person effects of motives (effect-enhancement, social, offered [it was offered], coping) on number of negative consequences and on experiencing hangover, nausea, or blackout; and indirect effects via two concurrent mediators: using multiple alcohol products and multiple cannabis products. Total effect models showed effect-enhancement motives were related to nausea, social motives to number of total consequences and hangover, and coping motives to blackout. Effect-enhancement, social, and offered motives evinced significant indirect effects on consequence outcomes via multiple alcohol, but not cannabis, product use. Coping motives did not exhibit significant indirect effects, and were related to multiple cannabis, but not alcohol, product use, although all other motives were related to both mediators. Findings support recent work demonstrating within-person relations between social motives and negative consequences on SAM-use days. Limiting the number of alcohol products consumed on SAM-use days may be beneficial, particularly for young adults using to enhance intoxication or for social reasons. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal associations between impulsivity and alcohol and cannabis use frequency, quantity, and problems among military veterans.

OBJECTIVE: Impulsivity is an established etiological risk factor for alcohol- and cannabis-related outcomes. However, limited work has focused on longitudinal associations between multiple trait impulsivity facets and indices of alcohol and cannabis use among military veterans-a contextually distinct population that evidence unique impulsive personality traits and substance use patterns. METHOD: A structural equation model (SEM) examined longitudinal associations between five UPPS-P impulsivity facets measured at baseline and six indices of alcohol and cannabis use (i.e., frequency, quantity, and problems) measured at 1-year follow-up among 361 returning Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Iraqi Freedom, and Operation New Dawn (OEF/OIF/OND) veterans. RESULTS: Findings indicated baseline sensation seeking was significantly positively associated with 1-year alcohol use frequency (ß = .18); baseline negative urgency was positively associated with alcohol use problems (ß = .31); and baseline lack of perseverance (ß = .25) and sensation seeking (ß = .21) were positively associated with 1-year cannabis use problems. None of the baseline impulsivity facets were associated with 1-year alcohol use quantity, cannabis use frequency, or cannabis use quantity. CONCLUSIONS: Results provide preliminary support that impulsivity may play a unique role in understanding alcohol- and cannabis-related problems over time among veterans. Further, results suggest that specific impulsivity facets are prospectively associated with cannabis problems (i.e., lack of perseverance and sensation seeking) and alcohol problems (i.e., negative urgency). Findings reinforce the importance of differentially evaluating impulsivity-substance use associations within contextually distinct populations (e.g., adolescent, veteran), and highlight potentially meaningful intervention targets among veterans. However, replication is needed with stronger temporal controls and more diverse veteran subsamples. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).