Editorial Perspective: Maximising the benefits of intervention research for children and young people with developmental language disorder (DLD) - a call for international consensus on standards of reporting in intervention studies for children with and at risk for DLD.

Current methods for reporting interventions do not allow key questions of importance to practitioners, service providers, policy-makers and people with DLD to be answered, and hence limit the implementation of effective interventions in the real world. To extend the existing EQUATOR guidelines to the context of speech language therapy/pathology for children with language disorder and to provide more specific guidance on participants, interventions and outcomes within the CONSORT checklist (used to improve the reporting of randomised controlled trials) and TIDieR (Template for Intervention Description and Replication) to ensure consistency of reporting. We will develop a core team to include representatives from each of the key groups who will either use or be influenced by the final reporting guidance across different countries. To achieve each set of aims, we will conduct reviews of the literature (which present typologies of intervention characteristics in (D)LD and related disorders); carry out focus groups; and use systematic consensus methods such as the Delphi technique, nominal group technique or consensus development conferences. Through the development and adoption of standard intervention reporting criteria, we anticipate that we will overcome the numerous barriers for practitioners, services and policy-makers in applying intervention evidence to practice. We believe that establishing international consensus on reporting guidelines would significantly accelerate progress in DLD research and the ease with which it can be used in clinical practice, by capitalising on the growth in intervention studies to enable international collaboration and new methodologies of data pooling, meta-analyses and cross-study comparisons.

The impact of age on the treatment of late-acquired sounds in children with speech sound disorders.

The question of 'when' to treat speech sounds is often posed in the context of normative data. The new normative data suggest that speech sounds such as /ɹ/ and /l/ are acquired earlier than previously thought. The present study compared the treatment of late-acquired sounds between two age groups of English-speaking children: Young children (4-5) and Old children (7-8). Eight monolingual children with speech sound disorder (SSD) participated in the study. Each child received a criterion-based, standardised, two-phase therapy protocol. Treatment efficacy was measured by examining children's accuracy on real world speech probes. Treatment efficiency was measured by calculating the number of sessions required to meet the exit criterion and the mean session duration. For treatment efficacy, young children learned treated sounds as effectively as oldchildren did. For treatment efficiency, both groups required a comparable number of sessions, but young children required longer sessions than old children. The results suggest that delaying treatment of individual speech sounds is unnecessary and that a range of sounds should be considered as potential treatment targets.

The influence of word characteristics on the vocabulary of children with cochlear implants.

The goal of this study was to explore the effects of phonotactic probability, word length, word frequency, and neighborhood density on the words known by children with cochlear implants (CIs) varying in vocabulary outcomes in a retrospective analysis of a subset of data from a longitudinal study of hearing loss. Generalized linear mixed modeling was used to examine the effects of these word characteristics at 3 time points: preimplant, postimplant, and longitudinal follow-up. Results showed a robust effect of neighborhood density across group and time, whereas the effect of frequency varied by time. Significant effects of phonotactic probability or word length were not detected. Taken together, these findings suggest that children with CIs may be able to use spoken language structure in a manner similar to their normal hearing counterparts, despite the differences in the quality of the input. The differences in the effects of phonotactic probability and word length imply a difficulty in initiating word learning and limited working memory ability in children with CIs.

A Word-Learning Intervention Pilot Study Utilizing Principles of Retrieval- and Criterion-Based Learning for Children With Developmental Language Disorder.

PURPOSE: Vocabulary knowledge at school entry provides an essential foundation for academic and literacy learning. Thus, school entry is an important timepoint to support word learning by children with developmental language disorder (DLD). Retrieval-based training strategies support both learning and retention of words for individuals with DLD in lab-based research. Additionally, lab-based research with adults with typical development demonstrates that pairing retrieval- and criterion-based training strategies supports learning efficiency. Currently, it is unclear if retrieval- and criterion-based training in word-learning interventions is feasible and effective for children with DLD. METHOD: In this pilot study, we taught preschool- and kindergarten-age children with DLD (N = 7) words in an intervention format. We implemented retrieval-based training in that children were asked to retrieve and produce the forms and meanings of words. We also implemented a criterion-based approach. Words were targeted until the child retrieved the form and meaning of a word at the beginning of two sessions. We assessed learning at the end of training and retention after 2- and 8-week post-training delays. RESULTS: The retrieval- and criterion-based approach was effective to support word learning for six of the seven children. Children demonstrated better learning and retention of forms than meanings. Additionally, achieving criterion with a word during training was positively related to post-training retention. CONCLUSIONS: A retrieval- and criterion-based approach is likely to support word learning during interventions for children with DLD. We include suggestions for future research to improve the effective and efficient implementation of these approaches.

A corpus of consonant-vowel-consonant real words and nonwords: comparison of phonotactic probability, neighborhood density, and consonant age of acquisition.

A corpus of 5,765 consonant-vowel-consonant sequences (CVCs) was compiled, and phonotactic probability and neighborhood density were computed for both child and adult corpora. This corpus of CVCs, provided as supplementary materials, was analyzed to address the following questions: (1) Do computations based on a child corpus differ from those based on an adult corpus? (2) Do the phonotactic probability and/or the neighborhood density of real words differ from those of nonwords? (3) Do phonotactic probability and/or neighborhood density differ across CVCs that vary in consonant age of acquisition? The results showed significant differences in phonotactic probability and neighborhood density for the child versus adult corpora, replicating prior findings. The impact of this difference on future studies will depend on the level of precision needed when specifying probability and density. In addition, significant and large differences in phonotactic probability and neighborhood density were detected between real words and nonwords, which may present methodological challenges for future research. Finally, CVCs composed of earlier-acquired sounds differed significantly in probability and density from those composed of later-acquired sounds, although this effect was relatively small and is less likely to present significant methodological challenges to future studies.

Grammatical treatment and specific language impairment: neighbourhood density & third person singular -s.

The purpose of this study was to test the effect of manipulating verb neighbourhood density in treatment targeting the third person singular lexical affix. Using a single-subject experimental design, six pre-schoolers with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: (1) treatment with sparse verbs or (2) treatment with dense verbs in 12 sessions. The third person singular lexical affix was targeted for 12 sessions of treatment in both conditions. Treatment gain and generalization were measured as the dependent variables. Third person singular % correct change from pre-treatment to post-treatment was measured using sentence production tasks with comparisons across the two treatment conditions. Treatment gain and generalization were greater for children enrolled in the sparse condition. Preliminary clinical recommendations are made and theoretical implications are discussed relative to neighbourhood density effects on lexical activation and storage in children with SLI.

Examining the acquisition of phonological word forms with computational experiments.

It has been hypothesized that known words in the lexicon strengthen newly formed representations of novel words, resulting in words with dense neighborhoods being learned more quickly than words with sparse neighborhoods. Tests of this hypothesis in a connectionist network showed that words with dense neighborhoods were learned better than words with sparse neighborhoods when the network was exposed to the words all at once (Experiment I), or gradually over time, like human word-learners (Experiment 2). This pattern was also observed despite variation in the availability of processing resources in the networks (Experiment 3). A learning advantage for words with sparse neighborhoods was observed only when the network was initially exposed to words with sparse neighborhoods and exposed to dense neighborhoods later in training (Experiment 4). The benefits of computational experiments for increasing our understanding of language processes and for the treatment of language processing disorders are discussed.

The interface between neighborhood density and optional infinitives: normal development and Specific Language Impairment.

The effect of neighborhood density on optional infinitives was evaluated for typically developing (TD) children and children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI). Forty children, twenty in each group, completed two production tasks that assessed third person singular production. Half of the sentences in each task presented a dense verb, and half presented a sparse verb. Children's third person singular accuracy was compared across dense and sparse verbs. Results showed that the TD group was significantly less likely to use optional infinitives with dense, rather than sparse verbs. In contrast, the distribution of optional infinitives for the SLI group was independent of verb neighborhood density. Follow-up analyses showed that the lack of neighborhood density effect for the SLI group could not be attributed to heterogeneous neighborhood density effects or floor effects. Results were interpreted within the Optional Infinitive/Extended Optional Infinitive accounts for typical language development and SLI for English-speaking children.

Minimal, Maximal, or Multiple: Which Contrastive Intervention Approach to Use With Children With Speech Sound Disorders?

PURPOSE: This tutorial contrasts a familiar and frequently used speech sound disorder (SSD) intervention approach, conventional minimal pair, with newer but less familiar and less frequently used variants that may be more effective: (a) maximal opposition and (b) multiple oppositions. METHOD: This tutorial provides a general description of each contrastive approach, focusing on the evidence base and a small number of critical elements that define the approach and make it unique from all other approaches. Hypothetical cases are used to illustrate how the approaches can be tailored to child needs and speech-language pathologist (SLP) expertise. Supplemental materials enhance the reader's skill in using these approaches in their practice with a minimal initial investment. RESULTS: The reader will be able to identify which children with SSD are appropriate for conventional minimal pair, maximal opposition, or multiple oppositions approaches and will be able to plan intervention (i.e., select target sounds and contrasting words or nonwords, develop intervention activities, write goals, and determine intervention intensity) for each of these approaches. CONCLUSIONS: This tutorial highlights that using the conventional minimal pair approach should be restricted to children with a small number of errors (i.e., older children or children with mild SSD). There is an opportunity for SLPs to use newer, more efficacious approaches with younger children and children with more severe SSDs. The maximal opposition approach is well suited to children with multiple errors across multiple sound classes. The multiple oppositions approach specifically targets global phoneme collapses that impact intelligibility. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.19178783.

Announcing a New Registered Report Article Type at the Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research.

PURPOSE: This editorial introduces the new registered reports article type for the Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. The goal of registered reports is to create a structural solution to address issues of publication bias toward results that are unexpected and sensational, questionable research practices that are used to produce novel results, and a peer-review process that occurs at the end of the research process when changes in fundamental design are difficult or impossible to implement. CONCLUSION: Registered reports can be a positive addition to scientific publications by addressing issues of publication bias, questionable research practices, and the late influence of peer review. This article type does so by requiring reviewers and authors to agree in advance that the experimental design is solid, the questions are interesting, and the results will be publishable regardless of the outcome. This procedure ensures that replication studies and null results make it into the published literature and that authors are not incentivized to alter their analyses based on the results that they obtain. Registered reports represent an ongoing commitment to research integrity and finding structural solutions to structural problems inherent in a research and publishing landscape in which publications are such a high-stakes aspect of individual and institutional success.

The influence of part-word phonotactic probability/neighborhood density on word learning by preschool children varying in expressive vocabulary.

The goal of this study was to examine the influence of part-word phonotactic probability/neighborhood density on word learning by preschool children with normal vocabularies that varied in size. Ninety-eight children (age 2 ; 11-6 ; 0) were taught consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC) nonwords orthogonally varying in the probability/density of the CV (i.e. body) and VC (i.e. rhyme). Learning was measured via picture naming. Children with the lowest expressive vocabulary scores showed no effect of either CV or VC probability/density, although floor effects could not be ruled out. In contrast, children with low or high expressive vocabulary scores demonstrated sensitivity to part-word probability/density with the nature of the effect varying by group. Children with the highest expressive vocabulary scores displayed yet a third pattern of part-word probability/density effects. Taken together, word learning by preschool children was influenced by part-word probability/density but the nature of this influence appeared to depend on the size of the lexicon.

Word Learning by Preschool-Age Children With Developmental Language Disorder: Impaired Encoding and Robust Consolidation During Slow Mapping.

Purpose Learning novel words, including the specific phonemes that make up word forms, is a struggle for many individuals with developmental language disorder (DLD). Building robust representations of words includes encoding during periods of input and consolidation between periods of input. The primary purpose of the current study is to determine differences between children with DLD and with typical development (TD) in the encoding and consolidation of word forms during the slow mapping process. Method Preschool-age children (DLD = 9, TD = 9) were trained on nine form-referent pairs across multiple consecutive training days. Children's ability to name referents at the end of training days indicated their ability to encode forms. Children's ability to name referents at the beginning of training days after a period of overnight sleep indicated their ability to consolidate forms. Word learning was assessed 1 month after training to determine long-term retention of forms. Results Throughout training, children with DLD produced fewer forms correctly and produced forms with less phonological precision than children with TD. Thus, children with DLD demonstrated impaired encoding. However, children with and without DLD demonstrated a similar ability to consolidate forms between training days and to retain forms across a 1-month delay. Conclusions Difficulties with word form learning are primarily driven by deficits in encoding for children with DLD. Clinicians and educators can support encoding by providing children with adequate exposures to target words via robust training that occurs across multiple sessions. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.16746454.

An online calculator to compute phonotactic probability and neighborhood density on the basis of child corpora of spoken American English.

An online calculator was developed (www.bncdnet.ku.edu/cml/info_ccc.vi) to compute phonotactic probability--the likelihood of occurrence of a sound sequence--and neighborhood density--the number of phonologically similar words--on the basis of child corpora of American English (Kolson, 1960; Moe, Hopkins, & Rush, 1982) and to compare its results to those of an adult calculator. Phonotactic probability and neighborhood density were computed for a set of 380 nouns (Fenson et al., 1993) using both the child and adult corpora. The child and adult raw values were significantly correlated. However, significant differences were detected. Specifically, child phonotactic probability was higher than adult phonotactic probability, especially for high-probability words, and child neighborhood density was lower than adult neighborhood density, especially for words with high-density neighborhoods. These differences were reduced or eliminated when relative measures (i.e., z scores) were used. Suggestions are offered regarding which values to use in future research.

Children's Response Bias and Identification of Misarticulated Words.

Purpose The purpose of this study was to examine whether children's identification of misarticulated words as real objects was influenced by an inherent bias toward selecting real objects or whether a change in experimental conditions could impact children's selections. Method Forty preschool children aged 4 years 0 months to 6 years 11 months across 2 experiments heard accurate productions of real words (e.g., "leaf"), misarticulated words (e.g., "weaf" and "yeaf"), and unrelated nonwords (e.g., "geem"). Within the misarticulated words, the commonness of the substitute was controlled to be "common" or "uncommon." Using the MouseTracker software, children were asked to select between a real object (e.g., a leaf) and a novel object (Experiment 1) or between a real object (e.g., a leaf) and a blank square, which represented a hidden object (Experiment 2). Results Consistent with previous findings, children chose real objects significantly more when they heard accurate productions (e.g., "leaf") than misarticulated productions (e.g., "weaf" or "yeaf") across both experiments. In misarticulation conditions, real object selections were lower than in the previous study; however, children chose real objects significantly more in the common misarticulation condition than in the uncommon misarticulation condition. Conclusions The results of this study are consistent with previous findings. Children's behavioral responses depended upon the task. Despite these differences in the task, children demonstrated ease in integrating variability into their word identification.

Using Computer Programs for Language Sample Analysis.

Purpose Although language sample analysis is widely recommended for assessing children's expressive language, few school-based speech-language pathologists routinely use it, citing a lack of time, resources, and training (Pavelko, Owens, Ireland, & Hahs-Vaughn, 2016). The purpose of this clinical tutorial is (a) to describe options for language sample analysis using computer programs and (b) to demonstrate a process of using language sample analysis focused on the assessment of 2 preschool children as case studies. Method We provide an overview of collecting and analyzing child language samples and describe 3 programs for language sample analysis: 2 dedicated software programs (Computerized Language Analysis [MacWhinney, 2000] and Systematic Analysis of Language Transcripts [Miller & Iglesias, 2015]) and 1 protocol for using word processing software to analyze language samples (Sampling Utterances and Grammatical Analysis Revised; Pavelko & Owens, 2017). We also present analysis results from each program for play-based language samples from 2 preschool children and detailed analysis of the samples with potential treatment goals. Results Each program offers different analyses, comparison databases, and sampling contexts. We present options for additional analysis, clinical interpretations, and potential treatment goals based on the 2 preschool cases. Conclusion Clinicians can use computer programs for language sample analysis as part of a process to make naturalistic language assessment more feasible. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.10093403.

Adult and child semantic neighbors of the Kroll and Potter (1984) nonobjects.

PURPOSE: The purpose was to determine the number of semantic neighbors, namely, semantic set size, for 88 nonobjects (J. F. Kroll & M. C. Potter, 1984) and determine how semantic set size related to other measures and age. METHOD: Data were collected from 82 adults and 92 preschool children in a discrete association task. The nonobjects were presented via computer, and participants reported the first word that came to mind that was meaningfully related to the nonobject. Words reported by 2 or more participants were considered semantic neighbors. The strength of each neighbor was computed as the proportion of participants who reported the neighbor. All data are provided online in a Microsoft Excel file accompanying this article (the data file can be found accompanying this article online at http://jslhr.asha.org). RESULTS: Results showed that semantic set size was not significantly correlated with objectlikeness ratings or object decision reaction times from J. F. Kroll and M. C. Potter (1984). However, semantic set size was significantly negatively correlated with the strength of the strongest neighbor(s). In terms of age effects, adult and child semantic set sizes were significantly positively correlated and the majority of numeric differences were on the order of 0-3 neighbors. Comparison of actual neighbors showed greater discrepancies; however, this varied by neighbor strength. CONCLUSIONS: Semantic set size can be determined for nonobjects. Specific guidelines are suggested for using these nonobjects in future research.

The effect of semantic set size on word learning by preschool children.

PURPOSE: The purpose was to determine whether semantic set size, a measure of the number of semantic neighbors, influenced word learning, and whether the influence of semantic set size was broad, showing effects on multiple measures both during and after learning. METHOD: Thirty-six preschool children were exposed to 10 nonobjects, varying in semantic set size, paired with 10 nonwords, controlling phonotactic probability and neighborhood density. Nonobject-nonword pairs were presented in a game format. Learning was measured in naming and referent identification tasks administered before, during, and 1 week after training. RESULTS: Results showed no differences in naming or identifying the referents of the nonobject-nonword pairs with small versus large semantic set sizes before and during training. However, 1 week after training, children named and identified the referents of nonobject-nonword pairs with small set sizes more accurately than those with large set sizes. CONCLUSIONS: Similarity to known representations appears to influence word learning, regardless of whether the similarity involves lexical or semantic representations. However, the direction of the effect of similarity to known representations on word learning varies depending on the specific type of representation involved. Specifically, lexical similarity speeds learning, whereas semantic similarity slows learning.

The Impact of Dose and Dose Frequency on Word Learning by Kindergarten Children With Developmental Language Disorder During Interactive Book Reading.

Purpose The goal was to determine whether interactive book reading outcomes for children with developmental language disorder (DLD) were affected by manipulation of dose (i.e., the number of exposures to the target word during a book reading session) and dose frequency (i.e., the number of repeated book reading sessions) and whether pretreatment factors predicted treatment response variation. Method Thirty-four kindergarten children with DLD (aged 5;0-6;2 [years;months]) were taught 1 set of words using the Dose 6 and Dose Frequency 6 format from a prior study (Storkel, Voelmle, et al., 2017) and taught a different set of words using an alternative format, either Dose 4 × Dose Frequency 9 or Dose 9 × Dose Frequency 4, determined through random assignment. Word learning was tracked for each treatment via a definition task prior to, during, and after treatment. Results Results showed that children with DLD learned a significant number of words during treatment regardless of the dose and dose frequency format but that significant forgetting of newly learned words occurred in all formats once treatment was withdrawn. Individual differences in word learning were related to Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals Core Language and Understanding Spoken Paragraphs scores. Conclusion When administered at an adequate intensity, variation in the dose and dose frequency of interactive book reading does not appear to influence word learning by children with DLD. Although interactive book reading continues to show promise as an effective word learning intervention for children with DLD, further development is needed to enhance the effectiveness of this treatment approach. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.9745181.

Implementing Evidence-Based Practice: Selecting Treatment Words to Boost Phonological Learning.

Purpose: Word selection has typically been thought of as an inactive ingredient in phonological treatment, but emerging evidence suggests that word selection is an active ingredient that can impact phonological learning. The goals of this tutorial are to (a) review the emerging single-subject evidence on the influence of word characteristics on phonological learning in clinical treatment, (b) outline hypotheses regarding the mechanism of action of word characteristics, and (c) provide resources to support clinicians incorporating word selection as an active ingredient in their approach to phonological treatment. Method: Research demonstrating the influence of the word frequency, neighborhood density, age of acquisition, and lexicality of treatment stimuli on phonological learning is summarized. The mechanism of action for each characteristic is hypothesized. Methods from the research studies are used to create a free set of evidence-based treatment materials targeting most of the mid-8 and late-8 consonants. Results: Clinicians have numerous evidence-based options to consider when selecting stimuli for phonological treatment including (a) high-frequency and high-density words, (b) low-frequency and high-density words, (c) high-frequency and mixed-density words, (d) low-frequency and late-acquired words, and (e) nonwords. Conclusion: Incorporating word characteristics into phonological treatment may boost phonological learning. KU ScholarWorks Supplemental Material: http://hdl.handle.net/1808/24768.

The Complexity Approach to Phonological Treatment: How to Select Treatment Targets.

Purpose: There are a number of evidence-based treatments for preschool children with phonological disorders (Baker & McLeod, 2011). However, a recent survey by Brumbaugh and Smit (2013) suggests that speech-language pathologists are not equally familiar with all evidence-based treatment alternatives, particularly the complexity approach. The goal of this clinical tutorial is to provide coaching on the implementation of the complexity approach in clinical practice, focusing on treatment target selection. Method: Evidence related to selecting targets for treatment based on characteristics of the targets (i.e., developmental norms, implicational universals) and characteristics of children's knowledge of the targets (i.e., accuracy, stimulability) is reviewed. Free resources are provided to aid clinicians in assessing accuracy and stimulability of singletons and clusters. Use of treatment target selection and generalization prediction worksheets is illustrated with 3 preschool children. Results: Clinicians can integrate multiple pieces of information to select complex targets and successfully apply the complexity approach to their own clinical practice. Conclusion: Incorporating the complexity approach into clinical practice will expand the range of evidence-based treatment options that clinicians can use when treating preschool children with phonological disorders. Supplemental Material S1: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.6007562. KU ScholarWorks Supplemental Material: http://hdl.handle.net/1808/24767.