Odour concentrations prediction based on odorants concentrations from biosolid emissions.

Biosolids storage areas are a significant contributor to wastewater treatment plant (WWTPs) odour emissions which can cause sensorial impact to surrounding communities. Most odour impact regulations are based on odour concentration (COD) measurements determined by dynamic olfactometry. Understanding the relationship between odorants concentrations and COD in the biosolids emission is important to identify how the measurement and monitoring can be conducted using analytical rather than sensorial techniques. Some of the odorants are unknown in biosolid emissions, increasing the uncertainty in predicting COD. In this study, emissions from 56 biosolid samples collected from two WWTPs located in Sydney, Australia, were analysed by analytical and sensorial methods, including olfactory detection port (ODP) and dynamic olfactometry. Concentrations of 25 odorants and two ordinal variables represented odour events detected by ODP assessors were linked to COD values. Bayesian Model Averaging and Variable Selection with Bayesian Adaptive Sampling were applied to model the relation between COD and odorants concentrations. Results indicate the usability of the probabilistic methods and nonlinear transformations in modelling the odour concentrations based on odorants concentrations from biosolids emission and the accuracy of a small dataset.

Measuring volatile emissions from biosolids: A critical review on sampling methods.

As a by-product of wastewater treatment, biosolids are a source of volatile emissions which can lead to community complaints due to odours and other pollution risks. Sampling methods play a significant role in collecting gas emissions from biosolids-related sources (i.e., pure biosolids, landfilling, land application and composting of biosolids). Though a range of different sampling techniques (flux hood, wind tunnel, static chamber, headspace devices) have been explored in many published papers, the management and best practice for sampling emissions from biosolids is unclear. This paper presents a comprehensive review of sampling methods for collecting gaseous emissions from biosolids. To account for the inconsistent terminologies used to describe sampling devices, a standard nomenclature by grouping sampling devices into five categories was proposed. Literature investigating emission sampling from biosolids-related sources was reviewed. Subsequently a critical analysis of sampling methods in terms of design, advantages, and disadvantages were compiled based on literature findings and assumed mechanistic understanding of operation. Key operational factors such as the presence of fans, purge gas flow rates, insertion depth, and incubation conditions were identified and their level of influence on the measurement of emissions were evaluated. From the review, there are still knowledge gaps regarding sampling methods used to collect gases from biosolids-related sources. Therefore, a framework for the management of emission sampling methodologies based on common sampling purposes was proposed. This critical review is expected to improve the understanding of sampling methodologies used in biosolids-related sources, by demonstrating the potential implications and impacts due to different choices in sampling methods.

Performance of wet scrubbers to remove VOCs from rubber emissions.

Poor performance of wet scrubbers in rubber processing plants due to breakthrough of specific volatile organic compounds (VOCs) causes odour impact events. The performance of wet scrubbers in the rubber drying process to remove VOCs was investigated in order to determine the responsible odorants. VOC emissions originating at the inlet and outlet of wet scrubbers were quantified using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry/olfactometry (GC-MS/O). Critical VOCs were identified alongside seasonal and daily variations of those VOCs. Altogether, 80 VOCs were detected in rubber emissions with 16 classified as critical VOCs based on their chemical concentration, high odour activity value (OAV) and unpleasant odour. Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) were the dominant VOCs with seasonal variations affecting emission composition. Results demonstrated the ineffectiveness of the wet scrubbers to mitigate odorous VOCs whereas the removal of some VOCs could be improved based on their polarity and solubility. It was found that there is a correlation between the wet scrubber performance and VFAs concentration in the emissions. The findings demonstrated that combining quantitative and sensory analyses improved accuracy in identifying odorous VOCs, which can cause odour annoyance from rubber processing. A VOC identification framework was proposed using both analyses approaches.

Management of biogenic taste and odour: From source water, through treatment processes and distribution systems, to consumers.

Biogenic taste and odour (T&O) have become a global concern for water utilities, due to the increasing frequency of algal blooms and other microbial events arising from the combined effects of climate change and eutrophication. Microbially-produced T&O compounds impact source waters, drinking water treatment plants, and drinking water distribution systems. It is important to manage across the entire biogenic T&O pathway to identify key risk factors and devise strategies that will safeguard the quality of drinking water in a changing world, since the presence of T&O impacts consumer confidence in drinking water safety. This study provides a critical review of current knowledge on T&O-causing microbes and compounds for proactive management, including the identification of abiotic risk factors in source waters, a discussion on the effectiveness of existing T&O barriers in drinking water treatment plants, an analysis of risk factors for biofilm growth in water distribution systems, and an assessment of the impacts of T&O on consumers. The fate of biogenic T&O in drinking water systems is tracked from microbial production pathways, through the release of intracellular T&O by cell lysis, to the treatment of microbial cells and dissolved T&O. Based on current knowledge, five impactful research and management directions across the T&O pathway are recommended.

Comparison of mass transfer parameters inside a USEPA flux hood for two VOCs.

Odorous emissions from area sources at wastewater treatment plants have become an environmental issue due to negative impacts on neighboring communities causing annoyance. Enclosure devices (such as dynamic flux chambers) have been used as direct methods to estimate area source emission rates from liquid-gas surfaces. Previously, model compounds have provided information about the internal mass transfer behavior of these sampling devices and the parameters estimated for certain model compounds that can be adapted for other compounds with similar liquid-gas partitioning properties. Acetic acid and butyric acid (both gas-phase-controlled compounds) were compared in order to assess the validity of adapting results from one compound to another. Mass transfer parameters for acetic acid and butyric acid were determined for a USEPA flux hood using a sweep air flow rate of 5 L/min. Mass transfer rates estimated for butyric acid, using the mass transfer parameters of acetic acid, were of the same order of magnitude as the experimental butyric acid mass transfer rates.

Selection framework for the treatment of sewer network emissions.

Increasing urban growth and lifestyle expectations have led to an increase in public complaints against odours from sewer infrastructure. Gas phase odour abatement in sewer networks, particularly at sewer pumping stations, is most commonly achieved by using biofilters, biotrickling filters or activated carbon filters. When odour complaints are received, a typical response is to close vents, leading to biogenic corrosion in sewers, which increases operating costs. A three-year study of the performance of odour control systems has allowed a comparison of the removal efficiency for the most common treatment systems. An analysis of the treatment system robustness has also been conducted. It has been found that biofilters, biotrickling filters and activated carbon all remove hydrogen sulfide and methyl mercaptan, however residual odours can still lead to complaints particularly during 'spikes' of the inlet, where a particular compound's inlet concentration is high. This analysis has led to an odour abatement technology selection flowchart being proposed for the treatment of sewer network emissions.

Identification of odorant characters using GC-MS/O in biosolids emissions from aerobic and anaerobic stabilisation.

Malodorous emissions from biosolids limit potential re-use opportunities. Emissions from anaerobically stabilised biosolids have been widely studied. In contrast, emissions from aerobically stabilised biosolids have not been well documented. Individual odorants in complex emissions can be detected using sensorial analysis methods, such as gas chromatography mass spectroscopy coupled with an odour detection port (GC-MS/O) where assessors sniff the GC effluent to identify odorants present. In this study, GC-MS/O was used to study and compare emissions from biosolids produced from aerobically and anaerobically stabilised biosolids from different wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The WWTPs varied in size, catchments and dewatering technology. Three GC-MS/O assessors were used for the sensorial analysis. The identified odorants varied significantly between the two sites using aerobic stabilisation, in number of odour characters detected, as well as their intensity. Different odour characters were noted from biosolids generated at the aerobic digestion sites compared to characters from biosolids generated at the anaerobic digestion site. Biosolids from the aerobic digestion sites had medicinal, acrid or putrid type odours not noted from the anaerobic site. However, descriptors of biosolids emissions were commonly noted as: rotten vegetables, seaweed, garbage, garlic, or bad-breath. Many of the descriptors were associated with the presence of sulfur-type compounds. The importance of assessor variability was also highlighted in the paper where certain characters were not detected or were described differently by assessors.

Variations of odorous VOCs detected by different assessors via gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry and olfactory detection port (ODP) system.

Odorous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were analysed via a thermal desorption gas chromatograph coupled with a mass spectrometer and olfactory detection port (TD-GC-MS/ODP) to characterize odour emissions from a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). Three trained ODP assessors, screened according to the European dynamic olfactometry standard (EN: 13725), were used for the olfactory analysis. Their sensitivity to n-butanol varied within the acceptable limits. VOC samples from the WWTP were collected onto Tenax TA sorbent tubes in triplicate and each assessor analysed one tube in the same sample desorbing and analysing conditions. Intensities of odours detected from ODP were scaled from 1 to 4. The ODP assessors used their own odour descriptors based on their own experience as well as referenced descriptors on published compost and wastewater odour wheels. The ODP assessors detected a total of 32 different odorous VOCs; however, the intensities assigned by each assessor to particular VOCs varied. Moreover, some odorous VOCs were not detected by all assessors. For example, geosmin was detected by only two assessors. The use of a TD-GC-MS/ODP system for the analysis of odorous VOCs is valuable when analysed by different assessors, allowing a range of responses to specific odorants in a populations to be investigated.

Sewer catchment effects on wastewater and biosolids odour management.

The composition of wastewater in sewer catchments is known to affect the performance of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). However, there is limited knowledge as to how catchment characteristics, such as types of catchment industries, impact odour emissions from downstream sludge processing and biosolids management. Odorous emissions from biosolids processing at WWTPs can represent a significant community impact when the local population is exposed to odours. The main odorants emitted from biosolids are volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), however, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in emissions may also be perceptable after the removal of VSCs in odour abatement systems. Types of compounds present in emissions throughout biosolids processing at five WWTPs of varying sizes and levels of treatment (primary only and primary and secondary) were analysed. The ratio of total VSCs to VOCs in emissions, and the sensorial importance of each class varied between the sites. As a number of the VOCs in emissions were of industrial origin, this variation is likely dependent on industrial flows into the upstream sewer catchment. The impact of different emission compositions on both activated carbon and biologically based odour abatement systems were discussed.

Sensitivity analysis of the WATER9 model: emissions of odorous compounds from passive liquid surfaces present in wastewater treatment plants.

Empirical mathematical models have been frequently used to estimate emissions and to act in the prevention of possible impacts from odorous compounds. Based on the regulatory WATER9 model, the present study had the aim to evaluate the deviations originating from the simplification of using the effective diameter (in contrast to the conceptually appropriate use of the linear physical fetch) as fetch parameter in the calculation of the global mass transfer coefficient at passive liquid surfaces at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). The present analysis incorporated the influence of different values of wind velocity, molecular diffusivity and Henry's Law constant. The analyses for the calculation of the mass transfer coefficients were developed for 1,000 wind speeds, chosen using the Monte Carlo method, three WWTPs and three compounds of environmental relevance, spanning different behaviour regarding their volatilisation. The wind speed had a direct influence on the deviations for all types of compounds analysed. However, this parameter was found to be more representative for the compounds whose volatilisation is limited by conditions in the liquid phase. Furthermore, the deviations for the calculation of the mass transfer coefficient arising from the use of the effective diameter as fetch parameter were significantly larger for liquid phase-dominated compounds, compared to gas phase-dominated compounds. Comparison against available experimental data confirm that the use of the effective diameter as the fetch parameter makes the model predictions further depart from the experimental values. The present analysis shows that, for a varied range of wind speed and WWTP configurations, the use of the actual physical fetch shall be preferred over the use of the effective diameter in emission models for WWTPs, so as to avoid the introduction of potentially large systematic deviations.

Odour emissions from poultry litter - A review litter properties, odour formation and odorant emissions from porous materials.

Odour emissions from meat chicken sheds can at times cause odour impacts on surrounding communities. Litter is seen as the primary source of this odour. Formation and emission of odour from meat chicken litter during the grow-out period are influenced by various factors such as litter conditions, the environment, microbial activity, properties of the odorous gases and management practices. Odour emissions vary spatially and temporally. This variability has made it challenging to understand how specific litter conditions contribute to odour emissions from the litter and production sheds. Existing knowledge on odorants, odour formation mechanisms and emission processes that contribute to odour emissions from litter are reviewed. Litter moisture content and water thermodynamics (i.e. water activity, Aw) are also examined as factors that contribute to microbial odour formation, physical litter conditions and the exchange of individual odorant gases at the air-water interface. Substantial opportunities exist for future research on litter conditions and litter formation mechanisms and how these contribute to odour emissions. Closing this knowledge gap will improve management strategies that intercept and interfere with odour formation and emission processes leading to an overall reduction in the potential to cause community impacts.

Water activity of poultry litter: Relationship to moisture content during a grow-out.

Poultry grown on litter floors are in contact with their own waste products. The waste material needs to be carefully managed to reduce food safety risks and to provide conditions that are comfortable and safe for the birds. Water activity (Aw) is an important thermodynamic property that has been shown to be more closely related to microbial, chemical and physical properties of natural products than moisture content. In poultry litter, Aw is relevant for understanding microbial activity; litter handling and rheological properties; and relationships between in-shed relative humidity and litter moisture content. We measured the Aw of poultry litter collected throughout a meat chicken grow-out (from fresh pine shavings bedding material to day 52) and over a range of litter moisture content (10-60%). The Aw increased non-linearly from 0.71 to 1.0, and reached a value of 0.95 when litter moisture content was only 22-33%. Accumulation of manure during the grow-out reduced Aw for the same moisture content. These results are relevant for making decisions regarding litter re-use in multiple grow-outs as well as setting targets for litter moisture content to minimise odour, microbial risks and to ensure necessary litter physical conditions are maintained during a grow-out. Methods to predict Aw in poultry litter from moisture content are proposed.

Influence of the fetch parameter on results from empirical correlations for estimating odorous emissions at passive liquid surfaces.

Passive liquid surfaces in wastewater treatment plants may be potential sources of odorous emissions. This study investigates the occurrence and significance of deviations that may originate from the use of the effective diameter as fetch parameter in the empirical correlations utilised by the WATER9 model to estimate odorous emissions at passive liquid surfaces. A sensitivity analysis was performed using benzene as a model compound and considering representative conditions of wind speed and wind alignment. The gas-film mass transfer coefficient (kG) was found relatively in sensitive to the choice of the fetch parameter, deviating less than 15% for aspect rations up to 15. The calculation of the liquid-film mass transfer coefficient (kL) was much more sensitive (positive extreme of 126.98% and negative extreme of -54.80%), partially because of the use of different equations for different fetch-to-depth ratios. For more volatile compounds, such as benzene, these discrepancies will be significantly manifested in the estimated emission rate. When appropriate, the use of the actual fetch instead of the effective diameter is recommended.

Impact of Storage Conditions on the Stability of Volatile Sulfur Compounds in Sampling Bags.

Odorous emissions from agricultural and waste management operations can cause annoyance to local populations. Volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) are dominant odorants that are often lost during collection using sample bags. The degree of VSC losses depends on factors such as storage time, bag materials, temperature, sample relative humidity (RH), light exposure, and the presence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). To assess the impact of those factors on the stability of 10 VSCs (hydrogen sulfide, methanethiol, ethanethiol, dimethyl sulfide, tert-butanethiol, ethyl methyl sulfide, 1-butanethiol, dimethyl disulfide, diethyl disulfide, and dimethyl trisulfide), laboratory-based experiments were conducted according to a factorial experimental design. Linear mixed-effects models were constructed for loss predictions. The estimated recovery of HS in Tedlar bag was 8 to 10% higher than in Mylar and Nalophan between 6 and 30 h. At ≤20°C and without being exposed to light, at least 75% relative recovery of the 10 VSCs in Tedlar bags can be achieved after 18 h, whereas, a maximum of 12 h of storage should not be exceeded to ensure a minimum of 74% relative recovery of the VSCs in Mylar and Nalophan bags.

Your garden hose: a potential health risk due to Legionella spp. growth facilitated by free-living amoebae.

Common garden hoses may generate aerosols of inhalable size (≤10 µm) during use. If humans inhale aerosols containing Legionella bacteria, Legionnaires' disease or Pontiac fever may result. Clinical cases of these illnesses have been linked to garden hose use. The hose environment is ideal for the growth and interaction of Legionella and free-living amoebae (FLA) due to biofilm formation, elevated temperatures, and stagnation of water. However, the microbial densities and hose conditions necessary to quantify the human health risks have not been reported. Here we present data on FLA and Legionella spp. detected in water and biofilm from two types of garden hoses over 18 months. By culturing and qPCR, two genera of FLA were introduced via the drinking water supply and reached mean densities of 2.5 log10 amoebae·mL(-1) in garden hose water. Legionella spp. densities (likely including pathogenic L. pneumophila) were significantly higher in one type of hose (3.8 log10 cells·mL(-1), p < 0.0001). A positive correlation existed between Vermamoebae vermiformis densities and Legionella spp. densities (r = 0.83, p < 0.028). The densities of Legionella spp. identified in the hoses were similar to those reported during legionellosis outbreaks in other situations. Therefore, we conclude that there is a health risk to susceptible users from the inhalation of garden hose aerosols.

Enantiomeric fraction determination of 2-arylpropionic acids in a package plant membrane bioreactor.

Enantiomeric compositions of three 2-arylpropionic acid (2-APA) drugs, ibuprofen, naproxen, and ketoprofen, were monitored in a membrane bioreactor (MBR) treating municipal effluent in a small rural town in Australia. Specific enantiomers were determined as amide diastereomers using the chiral derivatizing reagent, (R)-1-phenylethylamine (PEA), followed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). The six individual enantiomers were quantified by isotope dilution and the enantiomeric fractions (EFs) were determined. Over four separate sampling events, ibuprofen EF ranged from 0.88 to 0.94 (median 0.93) in the influent and 0.38 to 0.40 (median 0.39) in the effluent. However, no significant change in ketoprofen EF was observed, with influent EFs of 0.56-0.60 (median 0.58) and effluent EFs 0.54-0.68 (median 0.56). This is the first report of enantiospecific analysis of ketoprofen in municipal wastewater and it is not yet clear why such different behavior was observed compared to ibuprofen. Naproxen EF was consistently measured at 0.99 in the influent and ranged from 0.86 to 0.94 (median 0.91) in the effluent. This study demonstrates that EF is a relatively stable parameter and does not fluctuate according to concentration or other short-term variables introduced by sampling limitations. The enantiospecific analysis of chiral chemicals presents a promising approach to elucidate a more thorough understanding of biological treatment processes and a potential tool for monitoring the performance of key biological pathways.

Performance of activated sludge diffusion for biological treatment of hydrogen sulphide gas emissions.

Odours from wastewater treatment plants are comprised of a mixture of various gases with hydrogen sulphide (H(2)S) often being the dominant constituent. Activated sludge diffusion (ASD) as a biotreatment system for odour abatement has been conducted for over 30 years but has limited broad application due to disagreement in the literature regarding the effect that ASD may have on wastewater treatment performance. The effects of continuous H(2)S diffusion at 25 ppmv, with weekly peaks of approximately 100 ppmv, on H(2)S removal efficiency and wastewater treatment performance was evaluated over a 2-month period using an activated sludge pilot plant. H(2)S removal averaged 100% during diffusion at 25 ppmv, and 98.9% during the 100 ppmv peak periods. A significant increase in mixed liquor volatile suspended solids concentration (P < 0.01) was observed during H(2)S diffusion, which may be due to an increase in H(2)S-degrading microorganisms. There was no adverse effect of H(2)S on nitrification throughout the ASD trials. Ammonia (NH(3)) removal was slightly better in the test receiving H(2)S diffusion (87.6%) than in the control (85.4%). H(2)S diffusion appeared to improve robustness of the AS biomass to operational upsets.

Advanced characterization of fouling in membrane coupled with upflow anaerobic sludge blanket process.

In this study, an advanced process based on the use of ultrafiltration hollow fibre membranes immersed in the supernatant of an upflow anaerobic sludge blanket bioreactor (MUASB) and operated under low permeate flux was proposed. Process sustainability was assessed under different operating conditions: membranes were immersed either in the supernatant or in the biomass bulk and operated under various permeate fluxes. Additionally, temporal investigation was also proposed through the advanced characterization of fouling behaviour by systematic fractionation (based on level of reversibility) and analysis by liquid chromatography-organic carbon detector. Among the various suspended solids (SS) concentrations in supernatant (10, 25, 100, and 400 mg L(-1)) and in biomass bulk (6500 mg L(-1)), higher fouling levels were observed under low SS concentrations. However, more easily reversible fouling was obtained under MUASB conditions, demonstrating potential long-term sustainability. Results of long-term operation indicated that an increase of flux leads to larger amounts of SS participating in irreversible fouling and higher irreversibility. Temporal change in fouling characteristics revealed that the most easily removable fouling layer (i.e. cake), and its relative fraction of SS, were the two main factors impacting on the overall hydraulic performance. Additionally, the development of microbial population on the membrane surface was closely related to the proteins content and the overall hydraulic resistance. Polysaccharides and other dissolved organic matters (humic substances, building blocks, and low molecular weight compounds) presented low effect on membrane fouling.

The use of gas chromatography combined with chemical and sensory analysis to evaluate nuisance odours in the air and water environment.

Varieties of gas chromatography (GC) combined with chemical detection (CD) and sensory analysis at the odour detection port (ODP) for the evaluation of environmental odorants has steadily increased in application and sophistication; this has given rise to a plethora of techniques that cater to specific tasks. With this diversity of approaches in mind, there is a need to assess the critical points at which these approaches differ, as well as likely risks and factors that may affect them. These critical points explained within this review include sample preparation, GC separation techniques (with associated co-elution risks), how the elute is separated between CD and sensory analysis, the type of CD, the type of sensory analysis (with particular attention paid to its factors and guidelines), integrative data techniques, as well as how that data may be used. Additionally, this review provides commentary on the current state of the research space and makes recommendations based on how these analyses should be reported, the standardisation of nomenclature, as well as the impediments to the future goals of this research area. By careful consideration of the critical points of varying analytical processes and how best to communicate these findings, the quality of output within this area will improve. This review provides a benchmark for how GC-CD/sensory analysis should be undertaken and reported.

Sewer odour abatement monitoring - an Australian survey.

Odourous emissions from sewer networks can significantly impact a local population causing odour annoyance. A survey of nine Australian wastewater utilities that serve over 8.4 million people and operate over 59,000 km of sewer networks was undertaken to summarise the current monitoring practices in Australia with the view to assist the water industry to further improve their practices in operating and monitoring sewer odour abatement systems. Results indicated that most odour abatement systems were monitored through complaints from the surrounding community, H(2)S is the dominant online and offline monitoring parameter and that a variety of different H(2)S instruments are used across the industry but the reported use is dominated by two manufacturers. The monitoring data were primarily used for decision making and diagnosis, and there was limited use of non-H(2)S odourant analysis. The water industry had several significant limitations in terms of its inability to provide gas flow data, process monitoring and complaint data as well as being able to link process monitoring data with maintenance information for instrumentation. The improved collection and management of this data would yield benefits to the water industry in terms of odour abatement design, performance and management.