ABSTRACT
This study examined cortisol stress response trajectories across adolescence in 454 maltreated and comparison youth recruited from Los Angeles County between 2002 and 2005 (66.7% maltreated; 46.7% girls; 39.0% Latino; 37.7% Black; 12.3% Mixed or Biracial; 11.0% White; Mage = 10.9 years, SD = 1.2). Adolescents' peak activation and cortisol reactivity and recovery slopes following the Trier Social Stress Test for Children were calculated at four waves, then used to model peak activation and cortisol reactivity and recovery trajectories arrayed by age. Maltreated youth had blunted cortisol reactivity at age 9 relative to comparison youth (b = -.19, p = .02). Sexually and physically abused youth showed blunted cortisol reactivity and recovery trajectories relative to emotionally abused and neglected youth.
Subject(s)
Child Abuse , Hydrocortisone , Stress, Psychological , Humans , Female , Hydrocortisone/metabolism , Male , Adolescent , Child , Stress, Psychological/metabolism , Stress, Psychological/physiopathology , Child Abuse/psychology , Los Angeles , Longitudinal StudiesABSTRACT
The functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is implicated in the etiology and maintenance of depressive and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. However, different maltreatment experiences as well as the increased sensitivity of the HPA axis during puberty may alter associations between the HPA axis and mental health. To address these gaps, the current study examined the potential bidirectional associations between cortisol reactivity to a stressor, PTSD symptoms, and depressive symptoms among early adolescents across two time points, 1 year apart (n = 454; Mage = 10.98 at Time 1 and Mage = 12.11 at Time 2). Multiple-group path models tested the pathways between cortiol reactivity and mental health prior to and during puberty, for different types of maltreatment . Overall, the results showed that associations between cortisol output and symptoms of PTSD and depression were driven by those in the midst of puberty. Specifically, higher cortisol output at Time 1 was linked with higher levels of subsequent PTSD and depressive symptoms for neglected youth who had reached puberty. However, depressive symptoms predicted subsequent lower cortisol output for the physical abuse and emotional abuse groups. These findings demonstrate longitudinal links between cortisol, depressive symptoms, and PTSD symptoms among youth with different types of maltreatment histories and highlight the need to consider the reorganization of the stress system during puberty in order to advance our understanding of the HPA axis and mental health.
Subject(s)
Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic , Adolescent , Humans , Depression/psychology , Hydrocortisone/metabolism , Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/metabolism , Pituitary-Adrenal System/metabolism , Puberty , Stress, Psychological/psychologyABSTRACT
The Young Adolescent Project (YAP) is an ongoing longitudinal study investigating the effects of abuse and neglect on adolescent development. It is a multidisciplinary study guided by a developmental, ecological perspective, and designed to consider the physical, social, and psychological effects of childhood maltreatment through the transition from childhood to adolescence. Four waves of data collection have been completed, ranging from early (Mean age = 10.95) to late adolescence (Mean age = 18.24). Members of the maltreated group (n = 303) were selected from new cases that had been opened by the Department of Child and Family Services, whereas the comparison group (n = 151) were not involved with child welfare but lived in the same neighborhoods as the maltreated group. The study assessed a wide variety of domains including physical development (e.g., height, weight, body mass, pubertal development); physiological reactivity (e.g., cortisol); cognitive abilities; mental health (e.g., symptoms of depression, anxiety, trauma, and aggression); risk behavior (e.g., sexual activity, delinquency, or substance use); social development (e.g., self-esteem, competence, and social support); family environment; and exposure to community violence. Overall, our findings demonstrated the pervasive and persistent adverse effects of child maltreatment both within and across domains, but they also identified maltreated youth with positive functioning. Our hope is that this work will help move us toward identifying targets for intervention to cultivate resilience and positive adaptation after early maltreatment experiences.
Subject(s)
Adolescent Development , Child Abuse , Adolescent , Aggression , Child , Humans , Longitudinal Studies , Mental HealthABSTRACT
This special section is the product of a small-group meeting of those who study puberty and its relevance. Our aim was to gather information and write manuscripts to inform scientists of advances and continuing obstacles, as well as to stimulate interdisciplinary research on puberty relevant across the lifespan. The themes of the nine position or review papers (and commentary), range from cell to society. We hope this introduction will entice you to read all the papers and consider how they apply or expand your next steps in research or help you synthesize the literature on puberty. We anticipate the papers can embellish your adolescent courses, and, for junior scientists, we hope the many intriguing possibilities for future research on puberty will be apparent.
Subject(s)
Adolescent Health , Biobehavioral Sciences , Puberty/physiology , Research , Sexual Maturation , Adolescent , Adolescent Health/trends , Congresses as Topic , Guidelines as Topic , Humans , Manuscripts as Topic , Puberty/psychologyABSTRACT
We promote the perspective that puberty, a separate biological process embedded in adolescence, is a "window of opportunity" for understanding and impacting health and development. First, we include a brief overview of pubertal change. Second, we propose a critical role for puberty in shaping life span health due to its connections with early life precursors, health issues and risks emerging during puberty, and health in young adulthood and beyond. Next, we discuss the importance of puberty measures in developmental research and suggest ways to make the science of puberty an important standalone research entity, as well as an essential component of studies conducted during adolescence. Finally, we discuss measurement issues, novel theoretical models of puberty, and the necessity of adopting an interdisciplinary perspective in research on puberty and in adolescence more broadly.
Subject(s)
Adolescent Development/physiology , Adolescent Health , Health Promotion , Puberty/physiology , Research/organization & administration , Sexual Maturation/physiology , Adolescent , Concept Formation , Humans , Longevity , Puberty/psychologyABSTRACT
Puberty is associated with changes in behavior and psychosocial well-being, and is important in lifelong health. We present five different facets regarding interdisciplinary research that are important to puberty. A short history of philosophical issues instrumental in promoting early interdisciplinary research is first presented. We discuss then what is hard and what is easy about interdisciplinary research, the purpose of which is to alert scientists to challenges and opportunities for interdisciplinary research on puberty. Readers then are introduced to advances and obstacles in interdisciplinary research on development. Recommendations for tailoring graduate education toward interdisciplinarity are introduced. Finally, issues related to publication, education of scientists, and policy makers are described. The report concludes with a discussion of funding and policy issues.
Subject(s)
Adolescent Health , Interdisciplinary Communication , Puberty , Research/organization & administration , Sexual Maturation , Adolescent , Cooperative Behavior , Humans , Longitudinal StudiesABSTRACT
We examined relations between sleep-wake behaviors and pubertal development from age 8.5 through 15.5 years in a US-based sample of 488 boys (75% White) and 478 girls (78% White). Applying conditional nonlinear growth models to 7-waves of longitudinal data, we examined how sleep-wake behaviors are related to individual differences in the developmental timing and tempo of secondary sex characteristics. For girls, results supported the hypothesis that circadian changes in bedtimes, wake times, sleep duration, and eveningness preference were uniquely related to development of discrete aspects of secondary sex characteristics. For boys, the hypothesis was generally not supported. Different endocrine systems related to discrete secondary sex characteristics may be responsible for more relations between sleep and pubic hair development than for breast or genital development. Further research into associations between adrenarche and sleep during puberty may help researchers understand more about the origins and timing of adolescent sleep changes.
Subject(s)
Puberty/physiology , Sex Characteristics , Sleep/physiology , Adolescent , Child , Female , Humans , Longitudinal Studies , MaleABSTRACT
The aims were to identify the correspondence between simultaneous, longitudinal changes in cortisol reactivity and diurnal testosterone and to test the hypothesis that cortisol reactivity and diurnal testosterone interact so as to influence antisocial behavior. Participants were 135 children and young adolescents assessed at 6-month intervals over 1 year. Upon enrollment girls were age 8, 10, or 12 years (N = 69, M = 10.06 years) and boys were age 9, 11, or 13 years (N = 66, M = 10.94 years). Assessments included Tanner staging by a nurse, cortisol reactivity (Trier Social Stress Test for Children), diurnal testosterone, and interviews and questionnaires. Growth models showed that cortisol reactivity and diurnal testosterone basal levels (intercept) and rate of change (slopes) were not related, suggesting different mechanisms of growth. Longitudinal regression analyses assessed cortisol reactivity and diurnal testosterone longitudinally. The interactions of cortisol reactivity and diurnal testosterone showed that when diurnal testosterone was low, boys with low cortisol reactivity were reported to have more behavior problems (i.e., oppositional defiant disorder symptoms and attention problems) than when testosterone was high. In addition, when diurnal testosterone was high, boys with high or moderate cortisol reactivity were significantly higher on total antisocial behavior, attention behavior problems, and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms than when testosterone was low or moderate. The results were similar but less frequent for girls. These findings advance the science of young adolescence by showing the interaction between preexisting sensitivity to stressors and the normative testosterone changes of puberty and antisocial behavior.
Subject(s)
Attention Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders/physiopathology , Circadian Rhythm/physiology , Conduct Disorder/physiopathology , Hydrocortisone/analysis , Sexual Maturation/physiology , Testosterone/analysis , Adolescent , Attention Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders/diagnosis , Child , Conduct Disorder/diagnosis , Female , Humans , Male , Saliva/chemistry , Stress, Psychological/diagnosis , Stress, Psychological/physiopathologyABSTRACT
Attachment, affect, and sex shape responsivity to psychosocial stress. Concurrent social contexts influence cortisol secretion, a stress hormone and biological marker of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. Patterns of attachment, emotion status, and sex were hypothesized to relate to bifurcated, that is, accentuated and attenuated, cortisol reactivity. The theoretical framework for this study posits that multiple individual differences mediate a cortisol stress response. The effects of two psychosocial stress interventions, a modified Trier Social Stress Test for Teens and the Frustration Social Stressor for Adolescents were developed and investigated with early adolescents. Both of these protocols induced a significant stress reaction and evoked predicted bifurcation in cortisol responses; an increase or decrease from baseline to reactivity. In Study I, 120 predominantly middle-class, Euro-Canadian early adolescents with a mean age of 13.43 years were studied. The girls' attenuated cortisol reactivity to the public performance stressor related significantly to their self-reported lower maternal-attachment and higher trait-anger. In Study II, a community sample of 146 predominantly Euro-Canadian middle-class youth, with an average age of 14.5 years participated. Their self-reports of higher trait-anger and trait-anxiety, and lower parental attachment by both sexes related differentially to accentuated and attenuated cortisol reactivity to the frustration stressor. Thus, attachment, affect, sex, and the stressor contextual factors were associated with the adrenal-cortical responses of these adolescents through complex interactions. Further studies of individual differences in physiological responses to stress are called for in order to clarify the identities of concurrent protective and risk factors in the psychosocial stress and physiological stress responses of early adolescents.
Subject(s)
Hydrocortisone/metabolism , Object Attachment , Stress, Physiological , Stress, Psychological/metabolism , Adolescent , Anxiety/metabolism , Canada , Female , Frustration , Humans , Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/metabolism , Male , Saliva/metabolism , Sexual Behavior , Stress, Psychological/psychologyABSTRACT
This study identified trajectories of morningness-eveningness (M-E) and physical activity when chronological (i.e., time since birth) versus gynecological (i.e., time since menarche) age is used to indicate maturation. Piecewise models were fit for girls (N = 262, ages 11-19) using chronological or gynecological age as the time metric. Girls stayed up later (i.e., eveningness) as they approach menarche. After menarche no change in M-E was observed. In contrast, no change in M-E was detected with chronological age. No change in physical activity was observed before menarche, and physical activity declined after menarche. With chronological age, physical activity declined as girls got older. Gynecological age may be more appropriate than chronological age as a metric for understanding changes in M-E and physical activity.
Subject(s)
Adolescent Behavior/physiology , Circadian Rhythm/physiology , Exercise/physiology , Menarche/physiology , Adolescent , Age Factors , Child , Cohort Studies , Female , HumansABSTRACT
The dominance of reactivity-based theories of the cortisol response and lack of attention to cortisol recovery makes it difficult to compile an integrated theory of the stress response. This report examined a reactivity and recovery model of the cortisol response using variable-centered and person-centered approaches. Age and sex differences and heterogeneity in the pattern of cortisol response were examined. Participants were 135 healthy young adolescents participating in a three-wave longitudinal study of puberty and psychological development. At each wave, five saliva-cortisol samples were collected prior to and following a modified Trier Social Stressor Test for Children. Linear, quadratic, and piece-wise models of latent growth curve analyses and latent class analyses were conducted. Age differences in cortisol reactivity and recovery were found at wave 1 and sex differences in cortisol reactivity emerged at wave 3. Meaningful heterogeneity in the pattern of cortisol response was found cross-sectionally and longitudinally. The implications of heterogeneity in the cortisol response during early adolescence for developmental science are discussed.
Subject(s)
Adolescent Development/physiology , Hydrocortisone/metabolism , Sex Characteristics , Stress, Psychological/metabolism , Adolescent , Child , Female , Humans , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Saliva/chemistryABSTRACT
The purpose of this report is to provide evidence of an association between within-person variability in diurnal testosterone over 1 year, lifetime exposure to violence, and the manifestation of antisocial behavior in 135 pubertal-aged adolescents across 1 year. Adolescents' sex and lifetime history of violence exposure moderated the association between within-person variability in diurnal testosterone and antisocial behavior. Furthermore, sex-stratified analyses revealed that lifetime history of exposure to violence moderated the association between within-person variability in diurnal testosterone and antisocial behavior in females only. This report is unique in that it illuminates sex differences in within-person associations among exposure to violence, individual variability in diurnal testosterone, and antisocial behavior.
Subject(s)
Antisocial Personality Disorder/blood , Antisocial Personality Disorder/psychology , Circadian Rhythm/physiology , Exposure to Violence/psychology , Testosterone/blood , Adolescent , Antisocial Personality Disorder/diagnosis , Female , Humans , Individuality , Interpersonal Relations , Male , Puberty/blood , Puberty/psychology , Sex Factors , ViolenceABSTRACT
Throughout the life span, exposure to chronic stress such as child maltreatment is thought to contribute to future dysfunction of the stress response system (SRS) through the process of adaptive calibration. Dysfunction of the SRS is associated with numerous health and behavior problems, so it is important to understand under what conditions and what time frame adaptive calibration occurs. The present study tested for adaptive calibration of the SRS in a sample of maltreated (n = 303) and nonmaltreated (n = 151) youth during the important developmental period of adolescence. Data were used from Waves 2, 3, and 4 of a larger study of the consequences of maltreatment on health and well-being. At each time point, participants underwent the Trier Social Stress Test for Children and provided a baseline and four poststressor saliva samples to measure cortisol reactivity. Adaptive calibration was tested by performing a latent profile analysis using the five samples of salivary cortisol provided at each time point, and testing whether maltreatment status predicted the likelihood of profile membership at Time 2, Time 3, and Time 4. Three cortisol profiles emerged from the data at each time point (blunted, moderate, and elevated), and results indicated that maltreated youth were more likely than nonmaltreated youth to present with the blunted cortisol profile compared to the moderate and elevated profiles at Time 2 and Time 3, even after controlling for recent exposure to violence and trauma. At Time 4, there was no longer a difference in profile membership between maltreated and nonmaltreated youth, suggesting adaptive calibration may be a lengthy process requiring a period of years to become evident. Overall, the findings provide support for adaptive calibration and offer insight into the conditions under which adaptive calibration occurs.
Subject(s)
Adaptation, Physiological/physiology , Adolescent Development/physiology , Child Abuse , Hydrocortisone/metabolism , Stress, Psychological/metabolism , Adolescent , Child , Female , Humans , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Saliva/chemistryABSTRACT
Accelerated pubertal development has been linked to adverse early environments and may heighten subsequent mental and physical health risks. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning has been posited as a mechanism whereby stress may affect pubertal development, but the literature lacks prospective tests of this mechanism. The current study assessed 277 youth (M = 10.84 years, SD = 1.14), 138 boys and 139 girls, who reported on their pubertal development and underwent the Trier Social Stress Test for Children at baseline and returned to the laboratory approximately 1 year later (M = 1.12 years, range = 0.59-1.98 years). For girls, lower cortisol area under the curve (with respect to ground) at Time 1 predicted more advanced pubertal development at Time 2, controlling for Time 1 pubertal development. This association persisted after additional covariates including age, body mass index, race, and maltreatment history were introduced, and was driven by adrenal rather than gonadal development. Cortisol was not linked to boys' subsequent pubertal development, and no interaction by gender or by maltreatment appeared. These results suggest that attenuated cortisol, reported in other studies of children exposed to early adversity, may contribute to accelerated pubertal tempo in girls.
Subject(s)
Child Development/physiology , Hydrocortisone/metabolism , Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/metabolism , Pituitary-Adrenal System/metabolism , Puberty/metabolism , Child , Female , Humans , Male , Prospective Studies , Sex FactorsABSTRACT
Prenatal cocaine exposure may affect developing stress response systems in youth, potentially creating risk for substance use in adolescence. Further, pathways from prenatal risk to future substance use may differ for girls versus boys. The present longitudinal study examined multiple biobehavioral measures, including heart rate, blood pressure, emotion, and salivary cortisol and salivary alpha amylase (sAA), in response to a stressor in 193 low-income 14- to 17-year-olds, half of whom were prenatally cocaine exposed (PCE). Youth's lifetime substance use was assessed with self-report, interview, and urine toxicology/breathalyzer at Time 1 and at Time 2 (6-12 months later). PCE × Gender interactions were found predicting anxiety, anger, and sadness responses to the stressor, with PCE girls showing heightened responses as compared to PCE boys on these indicators. Stress Response × Gender interactions were found predicting Time 2 substance use in youth (controlling for Time 1 use) for sAA and sadness; for girls, heightened sadness responses predicted substance use, but for boys, dampened sAA responses predicted substance use. Findings suggest distinct biobehavioral stress response risk profiles for boys and girls, with heightened arousal for girls and blunted arousal for boys associated with prenatal risk and future substance use outcomes.
Subject(s)
Cocaine/adverse effects , Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects/chemically induced , Stress, Psychological , Substance-Related Disorders , Adolescent , Female , Humans , Longitudinal Studies , Male , Pregnancy , Risk , Sex Factors , Stress, Psychological/etiology , Stress, Psychological/metabolism , Stress, Psychological/physiopathology , Substance-Related Disorders/etiology , Substance-Related Disorders/metabolism , Substance-Related Disorders/physiopathologyABSTRACT
Substantial research has implicated the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes independently in adolescent mental health problems, though this literature remains largely inconclusive. Given the cross-talk between the HPA and HPG axes and their increased activation in adolescence, a dual-axis approach that examines both axes simultaneously is proposed to predict the emergence and persistence of adolescent mental health problems. After briefly orienting readers to HPA and HPG axis functioning, we review the literature examining associations between hormone levels and changes with behavior during adolescence. Then, we provide a review of the literature supporting examination of both axes simultaneously and present the limited research that has taken a dual-axis approach. We propose future directions including consideration of between-person and within-person approaches to address questions of correlated changes in HPA and HPG hormones. Potential moderators are considered to increase understanding of the nuanced hormone-behavior associations during key developmental transitions.
Subject(s)
Adolescent Behavior/physiology , Adolescent Development/physiology , Gonadal Hormones/physiology , Hydrocortisone/physiology , Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/physiology , Mental Health , Pituitary-Adrenal System/physiology , Adolescent , Humans , Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/metabolism , Pituitary-Adrenal System/metabolismABSTRACT
OBJECTIVES: Few studies have investigated overweight trajectories and psychosocial adjustment among adolescents. We conducted analyses with data from the multisite Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD). METHODS: The sample included 1350 youths born in 1991. Data consisted of repeated measures of weight, height, and multiple subscales of internalizing and externalizing behavioral problems measured by the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) from age 9 to age 15. RESULTS: Three trajectory patterns were identified: never/rarely overweight/obese (59.5%), late start/light overweight/obese (12.1%), and chronically/heavy overweight/obese (28.4%). Youths with chronically/heavy overweight/obese trajectory pattern had significantly higher scores of internalizing problems over time, as well as syndrome subscales of somatic complaints, social problems and social withdrawal over time than youths with the never/rare overweight/obese trajectory pattern. There was no significant difference in either broad-band behavioral problems or narrow-band syndrome subscales between youths with the never/rare overweight/obese trajectory pattern and those with the late start/light overweight/obesity trajectory pattern. CONCLUSIONS: Study findings may advance knowledge on the distinct developmental trajectory patterns of overweight youth and their linkages to the psychosocial adjustment during the period of pubertal transition. The results highlight the need for future prevention research to improve the physical development and mental well-being of adolescents.
Subject(s)
Adaptation, Psychological , Overweight/psychology , Adolescent , Adolescent Behavior/psychology , Body Mass Index , Child , Female , Humans , Male , Obesity/epidemiology , Obesity/psychology , Overweight/epidemiology , Puberty/psychology , Social Adjustment , Social Isolation/psychology , United States/epidemiologyABSTRACT
The study examined the interaction between early maturational timing (measured by premature adrenarche [PA]) and executive functioning and cortisol reactivity on symptoms of psychopathology. The study included 76 girls aged 6 through 8 years (mean = 7.50, SD = 0.85) with PA (n = 40) and on-time adrenarche (n = 36). Girls completed a battery of psychological and neuropsychological tests and blood sampling for cortisol. Parents completed the Child Behavior Checklist. The results demonstrated that girls with PA with lower levels of executive functioning had higher externalizing and anxious symptoms compared to other girls. In addition, girls with PA who demonstrated increases in serum cortisol had higher externalizing symptoms than those with stable patterns. Finally, girls with PA who demonstrated decreases in cortisol reported higher depressive symptoms. The findings from this study provide important information concerning the impact of cognitive functioning and stress reactivity on adjustment to early maturation in girls with PA. The results of this research may inform screening and intervention efforts for girls who may be at greatest risk for emotional and behavioral problems as a result of early maturation.
Subject(s)
Adrenarche/psychology , Child Behavior/psychology , Executive Function/physiology , Hydrocortisone/blood , Mental Disorders/diagnosis , Puberty, Precocious/psychology , Adrenarche/blood , Anxiety/blood , Anxiety/diagnosis , Anxiety/psychology , Child , Depression/blood , Depression/diagnosis , Depression/psychology , Female , Humans , Mental Disorders/blood , Mental Disorders/psychology , Neuropsychological Tests , Puberty, Precocious/blood , Puberty, Precocious/diagnosisABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between Morningness/Eveningness (M/E; a measure of sleep-wake preference) and alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use as well as the interaction of M/E and pubertal timing. The data represent baseline measures from a longitudinal study examining the association of psychological functioning and smoking with reproductive and bone health in 262 adolescent girls (11-17 years). The primary measures used for this study were pubertal timing (measured by age at menarche), the Morningness/Eveningness scale, and substance use (alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana). Multiple group path modeling showed that there was a significant interaction between pubertal timing and M/E on cigarette use. The direction of the parameter estimates indicated that for the early and on-time groups, Evening preference was associated with more cigarette use. For the late timing group the association was not significant. The results point to the need to consider sleep preference as a characteristic that may increase risk for substance use in adolescents.