Influence of Opioid Prescription Policy on Overdoses and Related Adverse Effects in a Primary Care Population.

BACKGROUND: In response to the opioid epidemic, many states have enacted policies limiting opioid prescriptions. There is a paucity of evidence of the impact of opioid prescribing interventions in primary care populations, including whether unintended consequences arise from limiting the availability of prescribed opioids. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to compare changes in opioid overdose and related adverse effects rate among primary care patients following the implementation of state-level prescribing policies. DESIGN: A cohort of primary care patients within an interrupted time series model. PARTICIPANTS: Electronic medical record data for 62,776 adult (18+ years) primary care patients from a major medical center in Vermont from January 1, 2016, to June 30, 2018. INTERVENTIONS: State-level opioid prescription policy changes limiting dose and duration. MAIN MEASURES: Changes in (1) opioid overdose rate and (2) opioid-related adverse effects rate per 100,000 person-months following the July 1, 2017, prescription policy change. KEY RESULTS: Among primary care patients, there was no change in opioid overdose rate following implementation of the prescribing policy (incidence rate ratio; IRR: 0.64, 95% confidence interval; CI: 0.22-1.88). There was a 78% decrease in the opioid-related adverse effects rate following the prescribing policy (IRR: 0.22, 95%CI: 0.09-0.51). This association was moderated by opioid prescription history, with decreases observed among opioid-naïve patients (IRR: 0.18, 95%CI: 0.06-0.59) and among patients receiving chronic opioid prescriptions (IRR: 0.17, 95%CI: 0.03-0.99), but not among those with intermittent opioid prescriptions (IRR: 0.51, 95%CI: 0.09-2.82). CONCLUSIONS: Limiting prescription opioids did not change the opioid overdose rate among primary care patients, but it reduced the rate of opioid-related adverse effects in the year following the state-level policy change, particularly among patients with chronic opioid prescription history and opioid-naïve patients. Limiting the quantity and duration of opioid prescriptions may have beneficial effects among primary care patients.

Change in Site of Children's Primary Care: A Longitudinal Population-Based Analysis.

PURPOSE: Evidence that fewer children are being seen at family physician (FP) practices has not been confirmed using population-level data. This study examines the proportion of children seen at FP and pediatrician practices over time and the influence of patient demographics and rurality on this trend. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective longitudinal analysis of Vermont all-payer claims (2009-2016) for children aged 0 to 21 years. The sample included 184,794 children with 2 or more claims over 8 years. Generalized estimating equations modeled the outcome of child attribution to a FP practice annually, with covariates for calendar year, child age, sex, insurance, and child Rural Urban Commuting Area (RUCA) category. RESULTS: Over time, controlling for other covariates, children were 5% less likely to be attributed to a FP practice (P <.001). Children had greater odds of attribution to a FP practice as they aged (odds ratio (OR) = 1.11, 95% CI, 1.10-1.11), if they were female (OR = 1.05, 95% CI, 1.03-1.07) or had Medicaid (OR = 1.09, 95% CI, 1.07-1.10). Compared with urban children, those from large rural cities (OR = 1.54, 95% CI, 1.51-1.57), small rural towns (OR = 1.45, 95% CI, 1.42-1.48), or isolated/small rural towns (OR = 1.96, 95% CI, 1.93-2.00) had greater odds of FP attribution. When stratified by RUCA, however, children had 3% lower odds of attending a FP practice in urban areas and 8% lower odds in isolated/small rural towns. CONCLUSIONS: The declining proportion of children attending FP practices, confirmed in this population-based analysis and more pronounced in rural areas, represents a continuing challenge.

Increasing Immunization Compliance by Reducing Provisional Admittance.

Students in Vermont with incomplete or undocumented immunization status are provisionally admitted to schools and historically had a calendar year to resolve their immunization status. The process of resolving these students' immunization status was challenging for school nurses. We conducted a school-based quality improvement effort to increase student compliance with Vermont immunization regulations using a collaborative learning approach with public health school liaisons and school nurses from public schools to reduce provisional admittance in 2011-2012. Strategies included using a tracking system, accessing the immunization registry, promoting immunization importance, tracking immunization plans, and working with medical homes to update records. Participating school nurses observed decreases in the number of provisionally admitted students, although this reduction was not significantly different than matched comparison schools. We also found the number of provisionally admitted students fluctuated throughout the year and resolving the immunization status of New Americans and exchange students required special attention. Our approach supports the coordinated school health model and demonstrates the critical role school nurses play in improving population health outcomes.

Psychological symptoms are associated with both abstinence and risky sex among men with HIV.

Sexual abstinence is often deemed the "safest behavior" in HIV prevention, but is sometimes associated with psychological symptoms (e.g., depression) just as sexually risky behavior is. This study explored whether sexual abstinence and risky sexual behavior among men with HIV were associated with similar constellations of psychological symptoms. Prior research has not addressed this issue because abstinent people often are not included in the sample or, when data are analyzed, researchers combine abstinent people with sexually active people who practice safer sex. Past research also neglects the co-morbidity of psychological symptoms. A latent class analysis of the psychological symptoms (assessed with the Symptom Check List 90-R; Derogatis, 1994) of 140 men with HIV, mostly from rural New England, revealed three latent classes: men who were asymptomatic on all symptom domains (28.8 %), men who were symptomatic on all domains (34.1 %), and men who were symptomatic on internalizing domains (37.1 %), but were asymptomatic on the externalizing symptoms of hostility and paranoid ideation. Logistic regression showed that sexual behavior during the past 90 days of men in the all symptom class and the internalizing symptoms class was similar, with abstinence and risky sex predominating, and safer sex being relatively uncommon for both classes. The sexual behavior of men in the asymptomatic class differed, with safer sex being relatively more likely to occur compared to the symptomatic classes. These findings suggest that the psychological symptom profile of sexually abstinent people places them at risk for inconsistent condom use should they engage in sexual behavior.

Associations Between Mental and Physical Illness Comorbidity and Hospital Utilization.

OBJECTIVE: Characterize the prevalence of chronic physical illness types and mental illness and their comorbidity among adolescents and young adults (AYA) and assess the association of comorbidity on hospital utilization. METHODS: This study features a population-level sample of 61 339 insurance-eligible AYA with an analytic sample of 49 089 AYA (aged 12-21) in Vermont's 2018 all-payer database. We used multiple logistic regressions to examine the associations between physical illness types and comorbid mental illness and emergency department (ED) use and inpatient hospitalization. RESULTS: The analytic sample was 50% female, 63% Medicaid, and 43% had ≥1 chronic illness. Mental illness was common (31%) and highly comorbid with multiple physical illnesses. Among AYA with pulmonary illness, those with comorbid mental illness had 1.74-times greater odds (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.49-2.05, P ≤.0005) of ED use and 2.9-times greater odds (95% CI: 2.05-4.00, P ≤.0005) of hospitalization than those without mental illness. Similarly, comorbid endocrine and mental illness had 1.84-times greater odds of ED use (95% CI: 1.39-2.44, P ≤.0005) and 2.1-times greater odds of hospitalization (95% CI: 1.28-3.46, P = .003), comorbid neurologic and mental illness had 1.36-times greater odds of ED use (95% CI: 1.18-1.56, P ≤.0005) and 2.4-times greater odds of hospitalization (95% CI: 1.73-3.29, P ≤.0005), and comorbid musculoskeletal and mental illness had 1.38-times greater odds of ED use (95% CI: 1.02-1.86, P = .04) and 2.1-times greater odds of hospitalization (95% CI: 1.20-3.52, P = .01). CONCLUSIONS: Comorbid physical and mental illness was common. Having a comorbid mental illness was associated with greater ED and inpatient hospital utilization across multiple physical illness types.

Sexual behavior as a function of stigma and coping with stigma among people with HIV/AIDS in rural New England.

The relationship between coping with HIV/AIDS stigma and engaging in risky sexual behavior (i.e., inconsistent condom use) was examined in HIV-positive adults living in rural areas. Participants answered questions about their experiences with HIV/AIDS prejudice and discrimination (enacted stigma) and their perceptions of felt HIV/AIDS stigma (disclosure concerns, negative self-image, and concern with public attitudes). They were also asked about how they coped with HIV/AIDS stigma, and about their sexual activity during the past 90 days. We hypothesized that using disengagement coping to manage the stress of HIV/AIDS stigma would be related to risky sexual behavior. Multinomial logistic regression results showed that using disengagement coping (avoidance, denial, and wishful thinking) coupled with high levels of enacted stigma was associated with less risky rather than more risky sexual behavior. That is, disengagement coping coupled with high stigma increased the odds of not having vaginal or anal sex versus inconsistently using condoms. Implications for people with HIV/AIDS who use disengagement coping to manage stress to deal with HIV/AIDS stigma are discussed.

Disengagement and Engagement Coping with HIV/AIDS Stigma and Psychological Well-Being of People with HIV/AIDS.

The stigma associated with HIV/AIDS poses a psychological challenge to people living with HIV/AIDS. We hypothesized that that the consequences of stigma-related stressors on psychological well-being would depend on how people cope with the stress of HIV/AIDS stigma. Two hundred participants with HIV/AIDS completed a self-report measure of enacted stigma and felt stigma, a measure of how they coped with HIV/AIDS stigma, and measures of depression and anxiety, and self-esteem. In general, increases in felt stigma (concerns with public attitudes, negative self-image, and disclosure concerns) coupled with how participants reported coping with stigma (by disengaging from or engaging with the stigma stressor) predicted self-reported depression, anxiety, and self-esteem. Increases in felt stigma were associated with increases in anxiety and depression among participants who reported relatively high levels of disengagement coping compared to participants who reported relatively low levels of disengagement coping. Increases in felt stigma were associated with decreased self-esteem, but this association was attenuated among participants who reported relatively high levels of engagement control coping. The data also suggested a trend that increases in enacted stigma predicted increases in anxiety, but not depression, among participants who reported using more disengagement coping. Mental health professionals working with people who are HIV positive should consider how their clients cope with HIV/AIDS stigma and consider tailoring current therapies to address the relationship between stigma, coping, and psychological well-being.

Assessing the Relationship Between Well-Care Visit and Emergency Department Utilization Among Adolescents and Young Adults.

PURPOSE: To investigate the association between adolescent and young adult (AYA) well-care visits and emergency department (ED) utilization. METHODS: Vermont's all-payer claims data were used to evaluate visits for 49,089 AYAs (aged 12-21 years) with a health-care claim from January 1 through December 31, 2018. We performed multiple logistic regression analyses to determine the association between well-care visits and ED utilization, investigating potential moderating effects of age, insurance type, and medical complexity. RESULTS: Nearly half (49%) of AYAs who engaged with the health-care system did not attend a well-care visit in 2018. AYAs who did not attend a well-care visit had 24% greater odds (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.19-1.30) of going to the ED at least once in 2018, controlling for age, sex, insurance type, and medical complexity. Older age, female sex, Medicaid insurance, and greater medical complexity independently predicted greater ED utilization in the adjusted model. In stratified analyses, late adolescents and young adults (aged 18-21 years) who did not attend a well-care visit had 47% greater odds (95% CI: 1.37 - 1.58) of ED visits, middle adolescents (aged 15-17 years) had 9% greater odds (95% CI: 1.01-1.18), and early adolescents (aged 12-14 years) had 16% greater odds (95% CI: 1.06 - 1.26). CONCLUSIONS: Not attending well-care visits is associated with greater ED utilization among AYAs engaged in health care. Focus on key quality performance metrics such as well-care visit attendance, especially for 18- to 21-year-olds during their transition to adult health care, may help reduce ED utilization.

Prescription opioid policies and associations with opioid overdose and related adverse effects.

BACKGROUND: United States (US) policies to mitigate the opioid epidemic focus on reducing access to prescription opioids to prevent overdoses. We examined the impact of state policies in Vermont (July 2017) and Maine (July 2016) on opioid overdoses and opioid-related adverse effects. METHODS: Study population included patients 15 years and older in all-payer claims of Vermont (N = 597,683; Jan.2016-Dec.2018) and Maine (N = 1,370,960; Oct.2015-Dec.2017). We used interrupted time series analyses to assess the impact of opioid prescribing policies on monthly opioid overdose rate and opioid-related adverse effects rate. We used the International Classification of Disease-10-CM to identify overdoses (T40.0 × 1-T40.4 × 4, T40.601-T40.604, T40.691-T40.694) and adverse effects (T40.0 × 5, T40.2 × 5-T40.4 × 5, T40.605, T40.695). RESULTS: Immediately after the policy, the level of Vermont's opioid overdose rate increased by 34% (95% confidence interval, CI: 1.09, 1.65) while the level of opioid-related adverse effects rate decreased by 29% (95% CI: 0.58, 0.87). In Maine, there was no level change in opioid overdose rate, but the slope of the adverse effects rate after the policy decreased by 3.5% (95% CI: 0.94, 0.99). These results varied within age and rurality subgroups in both states. CONCLUSION: While the decrease in rate of adverse effects following the policy changes is promising, the increase in Vermont's opioid overdose rate may suggest there is an association between policy implementation and short-term risk to public health.

Successful Integration of Pediatrics Into State Health Care Reform Efforts.

Health care reform in Vermont promotes patient-centered medical homes (PCMH) and multi-disciplinary community health teams to support population health. This qualitative study describes the expansion of Vermont's health care reform efforts, initially focused on adult primary care, to pediatrics through interviews with project managers and facilitators, CHT members, pediatric practitioners and care coordinators, and community-based providers. Analyses used grounded theory, identifying themes confirmed by repeat occurrence across respondents. Respondents believed that PCMH recognition and financial and community supports would improve care for pediatric patients and families. Respondents shared three main challenges with health care reform efforts: achieving PCMH recognition, adapting community health teams for pediatric patients and families, and defining roles for care coordinators. For health care reform efforts to support pediatric patients and be family-centered, states may need additional resources to understand how pediatric and adult primary care differ and how best to support pediatrics during health care reform efforts.

Pediatric-Informed Facilitation of Patient-Centered Medical Home Transformation.

Patient-centered medical home (PCMH) transformation has been challenging for pediatric practices, in part because of the National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA) PCMH focus on conditions and processes specific to adult patients. Realizing the potential challenges faced by pediatric practices, Vermont supported pediatric-informed facilitators to help practices during PCMH transformation. This study characterizes the impact of pediatric-informed facilitators; provides benchmark data on NCQA scores, number of facilitation meetings, and the time between facilitation start and end; and compares pediatric- and adult-serving practices. We found no difference between pediatric and matched adult-serving practices in NCQA score, number of facilitation meetings, or weeks to NCQA scoring. These results suggest that pediatric-informed facilitators can help pediatric practices achieve NCQA PCMH recognition on par with practices serving adult patients. Supporting primary care practices with specialty-informed facilitators can assist integration into health care reform efforts.

Macro-level implicit HIV prejudice and the health of community residents with HIV.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined how community levels of implicit HIV prejudice are associated with the psychological and physical well-being of people with HIV living in those same communities. It also examined whether community motivation to control prejudice and/or explicit HIV prejudice moderates the relationship of implicit prejudice and well-being. METHOD: Participants were 206 people with HIV living in 42 different communities in New England who completed measures that assessed psychological distress, thriving, and physical well-being. Telephone surveys of 347 residents of these same communities (selected via random digit dialing) were used to assess community explicit HIV prejudice and motivation to control HIV prejudice. These community residents then completed an online measure of implicit prejudice toward people with HIV, the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998). RESULTS: Multilevel analyses showed that higher community implicit HIV prejudice was associated with greater psychological distress among residents with HIV living in that community. The physical well-being of participants with HIV was negatively related to community implicit HIV prejudice in communities in which residents were unmotivated to control HIV prejudice or had high levels of explicit HIV prejudice. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that implicit prejudice of residents of real-world communities may create an environment that may impair the well-being of stigmatized people. Implicit prejudice can therefore be considered an element of macro-level or structural stigma. The discussion considered the possible role of implicit HIV prejudice on a community's social capital as a pathway by which it compromises the well-being of residents with HIV. (PsycINFO Database Record

A transactional approach to relationships over time between perceived HIV stigma and the psychological and physical well-being of people with HIV.

RATIONALE: Cross-sectional studies demonstrate that perceived discrimination is related to the psychological and physical well-being of stigmatized people. The theoretical and empirical foci of most of this research in on how racial discrimination undermines well-being. The present study takes a transactional approach to examine people with HIV, a potentially concealable stigma. HYPOTHESIS: The transactional approach posits that even as discrimination adversely affects the psychological well-being of people with HIV, psychological distress also makes them more sensitive to perceiving that they may be or have been stigmatized, and may increase the chances that other people actually do stigmatize them. METHODS: This hypothesis was tested in a longitudinal study in which 216 New England residents with HIV were recruited to complete measures of perceived HIV stigma and well-being across three time points, approximately 90 days apart. This study also expanded on past research by assessing anticipated and internalized stigma as well as perceived discrimination. RESULTS: Results indicated that all of these aspects of HIV stigma prospectively predicted psychological distress, thriving, and physical well-being. Equally important, psychological distress and thriving also prospectively predicted all three aspects of HIV stigma, but physical well-being did not. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that people with HIV are ensnared in a cycle in which experiences of stigma and reduced psychological well-being mutually reinforce each other.

Urban-rural differences in motivation to control prejudice toward people with HIV/AIDS: the impact of perceived identifiability in the community.

CONTEXT: HIV/AIDS is occurring with increasing frequency in rural areas of the United States, and people living with HIV/AIDS in rural communities report higher levels of perceived stigma than their more urban counterparts. The extent to which stigmatized individuals perceive stigma could be influenced, in part, by prevailing community attitudes. Differences between rural and more metropolitan community members' attitudes toward people with HIV/AIDS, however, have rarely been examined. PURPOSE: This study investigated motivation to control prejudice toward people with HIV/AIDS among non-infected residents of metropolitan, micropolitan, and rural areas of rural New England. METHODS: A total of 2,444 individuals were identified through a random digit dialing sampling scheme, and completed a telephone interview to determine attitudes and concerns about a variety of health issues. Internal or external motivation to control prejudice was examined using a general linear mixed model approach, with independent variables including age, gender, community size, and perceived indentifiability within one's community. FINDINGS: Results showed that community size, by itself, was not related to motivation to control prejudice. However, there was a significant interaction between community size and community residents' perceptions about the extent to which people in their communities know who they are. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that residents of rural areas, in general, may not show a higher level of bias toward people with HIV/AIDS. The interaction between community size and perceived identifiability, however, suggests that motivation to control prejudice, and potentially the subsequent expression of that prejudice, is more complex than originally thought.