Targeting the Warburg Effect in cancer; relationships for 2-arylpyridazinones as inhibitors of the key glycolytic enzyme 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/2,6-bisphosphatase 3 (PFKFB3).

High-throughput screening of a small-molecule library identified a 5-triazolo-2-arylpyridazinone as a novel inhibitor of the important glycolytic enzyme 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/2,6-bisphosphatase 3 (PFKFB3). Such inhibitors are of interest due to PFKFB3's control of the important glycolytic pathway used by cancer cells to generate ATP. A series of analogues was synthesized to study structure-activity relationships key to enzyme inhibition. Changes to the triazolo or pyridazinone rings were not favoured, but limited-size substitutions on the aryl ring provided modest increases in potency against the enzyme. Selected analogues and literature-described inhibitors were evaluated for their ability to suppress the glycolytic pathway, as detected by a decrease in lactate production, but none of these compounds demonstrated such suppression at non-cytotoxic concentrations.

Edd, the murine hyperplastic disc gene, is essential for yolk sac vascularization and chorioallantoic fusion.

EDD is the mammalian ortholog of the Drosophila melanogaster hyperplastic disc gene (hyd), which is critical for cell proliferation and differentiation in flies through regulation of hedgehog and decapentaplegic signaling. Amplification and overexpression of EDD occurs frequently in several cancers, including those of the breast and ovary, and truncating mutations of EDD are also observed in gastric and colon cancer with microsatellite instability. EDD has E3 ubiquitin ligase activity, is involved in regulation of the DNA damage response, and may control hedgehog signaling, but a definitive biological role has yet to be established. To investigate the role of Edd in vivo, gene targeting was used to generate Edd knockout (Edd(Delta/Delta)) mice. While heterozygous mice had normal development and fertility, no viable Edd-deficient embryos were observed beyond E10.5, with delayed growth and development evident from E8.5 onward. Failed yolk sac and allantoic vascular development, along with defective chorioallantoic fusion, were the primary effects of Edd deficiency. These extraembryonic defects presumably compromised fetal-maternal circulation and hence efficient exchange of nutrients and oxygen between the embryo and maternal environment, leading to a general failure of embryonic cell proliferation and widespread apoptosis. Hence, Edd has an essential role in extraembryonic development.

A novel plant toxin, persin, with in vivo activity in the mammary gland, induces Bim-dependent apoptosis in human breast cancer cells.

Phytochemicals have provided an abundant and effective source of therapeutics for the treatment of cancer. Here we describe the characterization of a novel plant toxin, persin, with in vivo activity in the mammary gland and a p53-, estrogen receptor-, and Bcl-2-independent mode of action. Persin was previously identified from avocado leaves as the toxic principle responsible for mammary gland-specific necrosis and apoptosis in lactating livestock. Here we used a lactating mouse model to confirm that persin has a similar cytotoxicity for the lactating mammary epithelium. Further in vitro studies in a panel of human breast cancer cell lines show that persin selectively induces a G2-M cell cycle arrest and caspase-dependent apoptosis in sensitive cells. The latter is dependent on expression of the BH3-only protein Bim. Bim is a sensor of cytoskeletal integrity, and there is evidence that persin acts as a microtubule-stabilizing agent. Due to the unique structure of the compound, persin could represent a novel class of microtubule-targeting agent with potential specificity for breast cancers.

EDD, the human orthologue of the hyperplastic discs tumour suppressor gene, is amplified and overexpressed in cancer.

EDD (E3 isolated by differential display), located at chromosome 8q22.3, is the human orthologue of the Drosophila melanogaster tumour suppressor gene 'hyperplastic discs' and encodes a HECT domain E3 ubiquitin protein-ligase. To investigate the possible involvement of EDD in human cancer, several cancers from diverse tissue sites were analysed for allelic gain or loss (allelic imbalance, AI) at the EDD locus using an EDD-specific microsatellite, CEDD, and other polymorphic microsatellites mapped in the vicinity of the 8q22.3 locus. Of 143 cancers studied, 38 had AI at CEDD (42% of 90 informative cases). In 14 of these cases, discrete regions of imbalance encompassing 8q22.3 were present, while the remainder had more extensive 8q aberrations. AI of CEDD was most frequent in ovarian cancer (22/47 informative cases, 47%), particularly in the serous subtype (16/22, 73%), but was rare in benign and borderline ovarian tumours. AI was also common in breast cancer (31%), hepatocellular carcinoma (46%), squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue (50%) and metastatic melanoma (18%). AI is likely to represent amplification of the EDD gene locus rather than loss of heterozygosity, as quantitative RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry showed that EDD mRNA and protein are frequently overexpressed in breast and ovarian cancers, while among breast cancer cell lines EDD overexpression and increased gene copy number were correlated. These results demonstrate that AI at the EDD locus is common in a diversity of carcinomas and that the EDD gene is frequently overexpressed in breast and ovarian cancer, implying a potential role in cancer progression.

Functional Roles of the E3 Ubiquitin Ligase UBR5 in Cancer.

The Ubiquitin-Proteasome System (UPS) is an important regulator of cell signaling and proteostasis, which are essential to a variety of cellular processes. The UPS is disrupted in many diseases including cancer, and targeting the UPS for cancer therapy is gaining wide interest. E3 ubiquitin ligases occupy a key position in the hierarchical UPS enzymatic cascade, largely responsible for determining substrate specificity and ubiquitin (Ub) chain topology. The E3 ligase UBR5 (aka EDD1) is emerging as a key regulator of the UPS in cancer and development. UBR5 expression is deregulated in many cancer types and UBR5 is frequently mutated in mantle cell lymphoma. UBR5 is highly conserved in metazoans, has unique structural features, and has been implicated in regulation of DNA damage response, metabolism, transcription, and apoptosis. Hence, UBR5 is a key regulator of cell signaling relevant to broad areas of cancer biology. However, the mechanism by which UBR5 may contribute to tumor initiation and progression remains poorly defined. This review synthesizes emerging insights from genetics, biochemistry, and cell biology to inform our understanding of UBR5 in cancer. These molecular insights indicate a role for UBR5 in integrating/coordinating various cellular signaling pathways. Finally, we discuss outstanding questions in UBR5 biology and highlight the need to systematically characterize substrates, and address limitations in current animal models, to better define the role of UBR5 in cancer.

Putative tumor suppressor EDD interacts with and up-regulates APC.

Adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), whose mutation causes colorectal cancers, is a key player in the Wnt signaling pathway. While the role of APC in inhibition of beta-catenin/LEF1-dependent activation of transformation-inducing genes has been intensively studied and well established, regulation of APC expression at the protein level is only partially understood. Here we report that APC is up-regulated by EDD, the mammalian orthologue of Drosophila melanogaster"hyperplastic discs" gene (hyd) that is considered to be a putative tumor suppressor. Screening of APC immunocomplexes by mass spectrometry identified EDD as a putative APC-interacting protein. Exogenously expressed and endogenous APC interacted with EDD in vivo. Indirect immunofluorescent analyses demonstrated that APC and EDD co-localized in the cytoplasm of the cell. Over-expression of EDD enhanced the protein expression level of APC and its binding partner Axin, resulting in inhibition of Wnt signaling downstream of beta-catenin. Conversely, siRNA knock-down of EDD down-regulated APC at the protein level without altering its mRNA level, causing enhanced protein expression of beta-catenin. Thus, through protein-protein interaction, EDD stabilizes APC and up-regulates APC's function to inhibit beta-catenin, suggesting that EDD could act as a colorectal tumor suppressor.

The E3 ubiquitin ligase EDD regulates S-phase and G(2)/M DNA damage checkpoints.

The cellular response to DNA damage is critical for maintenance of genomic integrity and inhibition of tumorigenesis. Mutations or aberrant expression of the E3 ubiquitin ligase EDD have been observed in a number of carcinomas and we recently reported that EDD modulates activity of the DNA damage checkpoint kinase, CHK2. Here, we demonstrate that EDD is necessary for G(1)/S and intra S phase DNA damage checkpoint activation and for the maintenance of G(2)/M arrest after double strand DNA breaks. Defective checkpoint activation in EDD-depleted cells led to radio-resistant DNA synthesis, premature entry into mitosis, accumulation of polyploid cells, and cell death via mitotic catastrophe. In addition to decreased CHK2 activation in EDD-depleted cells, the expression of several key cell cycle mediators including Cdc25A/C and E2F1 was altered, suggesting that these checkpoint defects may be both CHK2-dependent and -independent. These data support a role for EDD in the maintenance of genomic stability, emphasising the potential importance of dysregulated EDD expression and/or function in the evolution of cancer.

Lycopene inhibition of IGF-induced cancer cell growth depends on the level of cyclin D1.

BACKGROUND: Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) play an important role in normal and cancerous cell proliferation. Moreover, in recent studies IGF-I has been implicated as a major cancer risk factor. The tomato carotenoid lycopene and all-trans retinoic acid (atRA) have been shown to inhibit growth factor-induced proliferation of different types of cancer cells. This action is associated with inhibition of cell cycle progression in G0/G1 phase. Cyclin D1 acts as a growth factor sensor in G1 phase and is overexpressed in many breast cancer tumors. We have previously demonstrated that slowdown of serum-stimulated cell cycle progression from G1 to S phase by lycopene correlates with reduction in cyclin D1 levels, suggesting that the expression of this protein is a main target for lycopene's action. AIM OF THE STUDY: To determine whether the reported reduction in cyclin D1 level is the key mechanism for lycopene and atRA inhibitory action on IGF-I-induced cell cycle progression. RESULTS: Human breast (MCF-7) and endometrial (ECC-1) cancer cells were synchronized in G0/G1 phase by serum deprivation followed by stimulation with IGF-I. Cell treatment with lycopene and atRA inhibited IGF-I-stimulated cell cycle progression from G1 to S phase and decreased retinoblastoma protein (pRb) phosphorylation. These events were associated with a reduction in cyclin D1 and p21(CIP1/WAF1) level, but not that of p27(KIP1). To test the hypothesis that the decrease in cyclin D1 has a major role in the inhibitory effects of lycopene and atRA, we examined the ability of these two agents to suppress cell cycle progression in MCF-7.7D1.13 cells which are capable of expressing cyclin D1 under the control of the Zn-inducible metallothionein promoter. Our results showed that ectopic expression of cyclin D1 can overcome cell cycle inhibition caused by lycopene and atRA. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that attenuation of cyclin Dl levels by lycopene and atRA is an important mechanism for the reduction of the mitogenic action of IGF-I.

EDD mediates DNA damage-induced activation of CHK2.

EDD, the human orthologue of Drosophila melanogaster "hyperplastic discs," is overexpressed or mutated in a number of common human cancers. Although EDD has been implicated in DNA damage signaling, a definitive role has yet to be demonstrated. Here we report a novel interaction between EDD and the DNA damage checkpoint kinase CHK2. EDD and CHK2 associate through a phospho-dependent interaction involving the CHK2 Forkhead-associated domain and a region of EDD spanning a number of putative Forkhead-associated domain-binding threonines. Using RNA interference, we demonstrate a critical role for EDD upstream of CHK2 in the DNA damage signaling pathway. EDD is necessary for the efficient activating phosphorylation of CHK2 in response to DNA damage following exposure to ionizing radiation or the radiomimetic, phleomycin. Cells depleted of EDD display impaired CHK2 kinase activity and an inability to respond to DNA damage. These results identify EDD as a novel mediator in DNA damage signal transduction via CHK2 and emphasize the potential importance of EDD in cancer.

Identification of novel ERK2 substrates through use of an engineered kinase and ATP analogs.

The mitogen-activated protein kinases are key regulators of cellular organization and function. To understand the mechanisms(s) by which these ubiquitous kinases affect specific cellular changes, it is necessary to identify their diverse and numerous substrates in different cell contexts and compartments. As a first step in achieving this goal, we engineered a mutant ERK2 in which a bulky amino acid residue in the ATP binding site (glutamine 103) is changed to glycine, allowing this mutant to utilize an analog of ATP (cyclopentyl ATP) that cannot be used by wild-type ERK2 or other cellular kinases. The mutation did not inhibit ERK2 kinase activity or substrate specificity in vitro or in vivo. This method allowed us to detect only ERK2-specific phosphorylations within a mixture of proteins. Using this ERK2 mutant/analog pair to phosphorylate ERK2-associated proteins in COS-1 cells, we identified the ubiquitin ligase EDD (E3 identified by differential display) and the nucleoporin Tpr (translocated promoter region) as two novel substrates of ERK2, in addition to the known ERK2 substrate Rsk1. To further validate the method, we present data that confirm that ERK2 phosphorylates EDD in vitro and in vivo. These results not only identify two novel ERK2 substrates but also provide a framework for the future identification of numerous cellular targets of this important signaling cascade.

EDD, the human hyperplastic discs protein, has a role in progesterone receptor coactivation and potential involvement in DNA damage response.

The ubiquitin-protein ligase EDD encodes an orthologue of the hyperplastic discs tumor suppressor gene, which has a critical role in Drosophila development. Frequent allelic imbalance at the EDD chromosomal locus in human cancers suggests a role in tumorigenesis. In addition to a HECT (homologous to E6-AP carboxyl terminus) domain, the EDD protein contains a UBR1 zinc finger motif and ubiquitin-associated domain, each of which indicates involvement in ubiquitinylation pathways. This study shows that EDD interacts with importin alpha 5 through consensus basic nuclear localization signals and is localized in cell nuclei. EDD also binds progesterone receptor (PR) and potentiates progestin-mediated gene transactivation. This activity is comparable with that of the coactivator SRC-1, but, in contrast, the interaction between EDD and PR does not appear to involve an LXXLL receptor-binding motif. EDD also binds calcium- and integrin-binding protein/DNA-dependent protein kinase-interacting protein, a potential target of ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, and an altered association is found between EDD and calcium- and integrin-binding protein/DNA-dependent protein kinase-interacting protein in response to DNA damage. The data presented here demonstrate a role for EDD in PR signaling but also suggest a link to cancer through DNA damage response pathways.