Toward understanding the endocrine regulation of diverse facultative migration strategies.

Migration is an important event in the annual cycle of many animals that facilitates the use of resources that vary across space and time. It can occur with regular and predictable timing, as in obligate migration, or with much greater flexibility, as in facultative migration. Most research aimed at understanding the endocrine mechanisms regulating the transition to a migratory stage has focused on obligate migration, whereas less is known about facultative forms of migration. One challenge for research into the endocrine regulation of facultative migration is that facultative migrations encompass a diverse array of migratory movements. Here, we present a framework to describe and conceptualize variation in facultative migrations that focuses on conditions at departure. Within the context of this framework, we review potential endocrine mechanisms involved in the initiation of facultative migrations in vertebrates. We first focus on glucocorticoids, which have been the subject of most research on the topic. We then examine other potential hormones and neurohormones that have received less attention, but are exciting candidates to consider. We conclude by highlighting areas where future research is particularly needed.

Does capacity to produce androgens underlie variation in female ornamentation and territoriality in White-shouldered Fairywren (Malurus alboscapulatus)?

Historic bias toward study of sex hormones and sexual ornamentation in males currently constrains our perspective of hormone-behavior-phenotype relationships. Resolving how ornamented female phenotypes evolve is particularly important for understanding the diversity of social signals across taxa. Studies of both males and females in taxa with variable female phenotypes are needed to establish whether sexes share mechanisms underlying expression of signaling phenotypes and behavior. White-shouldered Fairywren (Malurus alboscapulatus) subspecies vary in female ornamentation, baseline circulating androgens, and response to territorial intrusion. The moretoni ornamented female subspecies is characterized by higher female, but lower male baseline androgens, and a stronger pair territorial response relative to pairs from the lorentzi unornamented female subspecies. Here we address whether subspecific differences in female ornamentation, baseline androgens, and pair territoriality are associated with ability to elevate androgens following gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) challenge and in response to simulated territorial intrusion. We find that subspecies do not differ in their capacity to produce androgens in either sex following GnRH or simulated territorial intrusion (STI) challenges. STI-induced androgens were predictive of degree of response to territorial intrusions in females only, but the direction of the effect was mixed. GnRH-induced androgens did not correlate with response to simulated intruders, nor did females sampled during intrusion elevate androgens relative to flushed controls, suggesting that increased androgens are not necessary for the expression of territorial defense behaviors. Collectively, our results suggest that capacity to produce androgens does not underlie subspecific patterns of female ornamentation, territoriality, and baseline plasma androgens.

Telomere length predicts timing and intensity of migratory behaviour in a nomadic songbird.

Our understanding of state-dependent behaviour is reliant on identifying physiological indicators of condition. Telomeres are of growing interest for understanding behaviour as they capture differences in biological state and residual lifespan. To understand the significance of variable telomere lengths for behaviour and test two hypotheses describing the relationship between telomeres and behaviour (i.e. the causation and the selective adoption hypotheses), we assessed if telomere lengths are longitudinally repeatable traits related to spring migratory behaviour in captive pine siskins (Spinus pinus). Pine siskins are nomadic songbirds that exhibit highly flexible, facultative migrations, including a period of spring nomadism. Captive individuals exhibit extensive variation in spring migratory restlessness and are an excellent system for mechanistic studies of migratory behaviour. Telomere lengths were found to be significantly repeatable (R = 0.51) over four months, and shorter pre-migratory telomeres were associated with earlier and more intense expression of spring nocturnal migratory restlessness. Telomere dynamics did not vary with migratory behaviour. Our results describe the relationship between telomere length and migratory behaviour and provide support for the selective adoption hypothesis. More broadly, we provide a novel perspective on the significance of variable telomere lengths for animal behaviour and the timing of annual cycle events.

Social environment influences termination of nomadic migration.

The final stage of migration, when animals terminate migratory movements and transition to a more sedentary state, remains the least understood phase of migration. Whereas migrants that return to the same locations each year may use mechanisms associated with locating a specific destination, migrants with low site fidelity, such as nomadic migrants, may rely on local environmental cues to determine when to cease migratory movements. Using an experiment with captive birds, we tested whether the presence of a conspecific influences the termination of migration, indicated by changes in behaviour and physiology, in a nomadic migrant (the pine siskin, Spinus pinus). We paired migratory birds with a non-migratory individual or left migratory and non-migratory individuals unpaired. Migratory paired birds had a significant decline in nocturnal activity immediately after pairing and activity levels remained lower two weeks later, with significant declines in energetic reserves and flight muscle size also observed. By contrast, migratory unpaired birds maintained high levels of activity and energetic reserves. These results provide evidence for a role of the social environment in migratory termination decisions. Social cues may be particularly useful in nomadic migrants, such as pine siskins, to facilitate settling in high quality, but unfamiliar, habitats.

Corticosterone's roles in avian migration: Assessment of three hypotheses.

While corticosterone (CORT) is often suggested to be an important hormone regulating processes necessary for avian migration, there has been no systematic assessment of CORT's role in migration. Prior to migration, birds increase fat stores and flight muscle size to prepare for the high energetic costs associated with long-distance flight. After attaining sufficient energetic stores, birds then make the actual decision to depart from their origin site. Once en route birds alternate between periods of flight and stopovers, during which they rest and refuel for their next bouts of endurance flight. Here, we evaluate three non-mutually exclusive hypotheses that have been proposed in the literature for CORT's role in migration. (1) CORT facilitates physiological preparations for migration [e.g. hyperphagia, fattening, and flight muscle hypertrophy]. (2) CORT stimulates departure from origin or stopover sites. (3) CORT supports sustained migratory travel. After examining the literature to test predictions stemming from each of these three hypotheses, we found weak support for a role of CORT in physiological preparation for migration. However, we found moderate support for a role of CORT in stimulating departures, as CORT increases immediately prior to departure and is higher when migratory restlessness is displayed. We also found moderate support for the hypothesis that CORT helps maintain sustained travel, as CORT is generally higher during periods of flight, though few studies have tested this hypothesis. We provide recommendations for future studies that would help to further resolve the role of CORT in migration.

Migratory state and patterns of steroid hormone regulation in the pectoralis muscle of a nomadic migrant, the pine siskin (Spinus pinus).

The endocrine system is known to mediate responses to environmental change and transitions between different life stages (e.g., a non-breeding to a breeding life stage). Previous works from the field of environmental endocrinology have primarily focused on changes in circulating hormones, but a comprehensive understanding of endocrine signaling pathways requires studying changes in additional endocrine components (e.g., receptor densities) in a diversity of contexts and life stages. Migratory birds, for instance, can exhibit dramatic changes in their physiology and behavior, and both sex steroids as well as glucocorticoids are proposed mediators of the transition into a migratory state. However, the role of changes in endocrine signaling components within integral target tissues, such as flight muscles, in modulating the transition into a migratory state remains poorly understood. Here, we examined changes in gene expression levels of and correlational patterns (i.e., integration) between 8 endocrine signaling components associated with either glucocorticoids or sex steroid signaling in the pectoralis muscles of a nomadic migratory bird, the pine siskin (Spinus pinus). The pectoralis muscle is essential to migratory flight and undergoes conspicuous changes in preparation for migration, including hypertrophy. We focus on endocrine receptors and enzymes (e.g., 5α-reductase) that modulate the signaling capacity of circulating hormones within target tissues and may influence either catabolic or anabolic functioning within the pectoralis. Endocrine signaling components were compared between captive birds sampled prior to the expression of vernal migratory preparation and during the expression of a vernal migratory state. While birds exhibited differences in the size and color of the flight muscle and behavioral shifts indicative of a migratory state (i.e., zugunruhe), none of the measured endocrine components differed before and after the transition into the migratory state. Patterns of integration amongst all genes did, however, differ between the two life stages, suggesting the contrasting demands of different life stages may shape entire endocrine signaling networks within target tissues rather than individual components. Our work aligns with previous endocrine studies on pine siskins and, viewed together, suggest additional studies are needed to understand the endocrine system's role in mediating the development and progression of the vernal migratory state in this species. Further, the patterns observed in pine siskins, a nomadic migrant, differ from previous studies on obligate migrants and suggest that different mechanisms or interactions between endocrine signaling components may mediate the migratory transition in nomadic migrants.

Seasonal regulation of behaviour: what role do hormone receptors play?

Many animals differentially express behaviours across the annual cycle as life stages are coordinated with seasonal environmental conditions. Understanding of the mechanistic basis of such seasonal changes in behaviour has traditionally focused on the role of changes in circulating hormone levels. However, it is increasingly apparent that other endocrine regulation mechanisms such as changes in local hormone synthesis and receptor abundance also play a role. Here I review what is known about seasonal changes in steroid hormone receptor abundance in relation to seasonal behaviour in vertebrates. I find that there is widespread, though not ubiquitous, seasonal variation in the expression of steroid hormone receptors in the brain, with such variation being best documented in association with courtship, mating and aggression. The most common pattern of seasonal variation is for there to be upregulation of sex steroid receptors with the expression of courtship and mating behaviours, when circulating hormone levels are also high. Less well-documented are cases in which seasonal increases in receptor expression could compensate for low circulating hormone levels or seasonal downregulation that could serve a protective function. I conclude by identifying important directions for future research.

Declining food availability, corticosterone, and migratory response in a nomadic, irruptive migrant.

While obligate migrants time their movements to respond to predictable changes in the environment, facultative migration is characterized by more variable movements that are driven by unpredictable changes in resource availability. The proximate cues that trigger facultative migrations and the endocrine mechanisms involved in these responses remain poorly understood, though corticosterone may be a key mediator of facultative migration due to its effects on activity and metabolic processes. We conducted experiments in the fall and spring to examine the response of pine siskins (Spinus pinus), a facultative migrant, to a two-stage food restriction. Our goals were to examine whether declining food availability stimulated behavioral and/or physiological changes consistent with a migratory response, whether anticipatory behavioral and physiological adjustments occurred when birds were initially presented with changing food availability, and if observed changes corresponded to changes in circulating corticosterone levels. We found no evidence of preparatory physiological changes for migration, but food-restricted birds in the spring had increased daytime activity indicative of a migratory response. Corticosterone increased at each stage of the restriction and the change in corticosterone corresponded to the magnitude of decline in body condition. Increased corticosterone was also correlated with larger increases in activity during the initial stage of food restriction, but only during the spring, when birds also displayed higher levels of initial body condition. These results suggest that initial energetic state and corticosterone response may interact to determine an individual's behavioral and physiological response to declining food availability and ultimately the facultative migratory response.

Variation in chronotype is associated with migratory timing in a songbird.

Like many organisms, birds exhibit daily (circadian) and seasonal biological rhythms, and within populations both daily and seasonal timing often vary among individuals. Because photoperiod interacts with the circadian rhythms of many organisms to induce seasonal changes in behaviour and physiology, it is hypothesized that differences in daily timing, called chronotypes, underpin differences among individuals in the timing of seasonal events. For seasonal events stimulated by increasing daylength, this hypothesis predicts a positive relationship between the timing of daily and seasonal activities of individuals, with advanced chronotypes expressing events earlier in the year. The few previous tests of this hypothesis have focused on seasonal reproductive timing in birds. However, the hypothesis predicts that this relationship should extend to other photoinduced seasonal events. Therefore, we tested whether variation in chronotype was associated with variation in spring migratory timing in a captive songbird model, the pine siskin (Spinus pinus). We found that pine siskins expressing migratory restlessness exhibited repeatable chronotypes in their timing of nocturnal activity. Further, chronotype was significantly associated with the onset date of migratory behaviour, consistent with the hypothesized relationship between chronotype and seasonal timing.

Tenofovir-based preexposure prophylaxis for HIV infection among African women.

BACKGROUND: Reproductive-age women need effective interventions to prevent the acquisition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. METHODS: We conducted a randomized, placebo-controlled trial to assess daily treatment with oral tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF), oral tenofovir-emtricitabine (TDF-FTC), or 1% tenofovir (TFV) vaginal gel as preexposure prophylaxis against HIV-1 infection in women in South Africa, Uganda, and Zimbabwe. HIV-1 testing was performed monthly, and plasma TFV levels were assessed quarterly. RESULTS: Of 12,320 women who were screened, 5029 were enrolled in the study. The rate of retention in the study was 91% during 5509 person-years of follow-up. A total of 312 HIV-1 infections occurred; the incidence of HIV-1 infection was 5.7 per 100 person-years. In the modified intention-to-treat analysis, the effectiveness was -49.0% with TDF (hazard ratio for infection, 1.49; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.97 to 2.29), -4.4% with TDF-FTC (hazard ratio, 1.04; 95% CI, 0.73 to 1.49), and 14.5% with TFV gel (hazard ratio, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.61 to 1.21). In a random sample, TFV was detected in 30%, 29%, and 25% of available plasma samples from participants randomly assigned to receive TDF, TDF-FTC, and TFV gel, respectively. Independent predictors of TFV detection included being married, being older than 25 years of age, and being multiparous. Detection of TFV in plasma was negatively associated with characteristics predictive of HIV-1 acquisition. Elevations of serum creatinine levels were seen more frequently among participants randomly assigned to receive oral TDF-FTC than among those assigned to receive oral placebo (1.3% vs. 0.2%, P=0.004). We observed no significant differences in the frequencies of other adverse events. CONCLUSIONS: None of the drug regimens we evaluated reduced the rates of HIV-1 acquisition in an intention-to-treat analysis. Adherence to study drugs was low. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health; VOICE ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00705679.).

Effects of temperature on the timing of breeding and molt transitions in house finches.

Temperature-correlated shifts in reproductive timing are now well documented in numerous bird species. However, whether temperature directly influences reproductive timing or whether its effects are mediated by an intermediate environmental cue, such as plant phenology, remains poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the direct effects of temperature on reproductive timing in house finches (Haemorhous mexicanus), which have a range and breeding diet not well represented in previous studies of temperature and reproductive timing. We conducted experiments with captive male house finches in which temperature was elevated within realistic ranges and the effects on the timing of preparations for reproduction, as well as on the termination of reproduction and the onset of prebasic feather molt, were examined. We found no adjustments in the timing of reproductive preparations of males in direct response to temperature. However, elevated temperature did advance the breeding-molt transition. Our results suggest that elevated temperatures in the range tested here do not directly impact physiological preparations for reproduction in male house finches, but may constrain the timing of the breeding-molt transition in this species.

Understanding variation in migratory movements: A mechanistic approach.

Spatial and temporal fluctuations in resource availability have led to the evolution of varied migration patterns. In order to appropriately time movements in relation to resources, environmental cues are used to provide proximate information for timing and the endocrine system serves to integrate these external cues and behavioral and physiological responses. Yet, the regulatory mechanisms underlying migratory timing have rarely been compared across a broad range of migratory patterns. First, we offer an updated nomenclature of migration using a mechanistic perspective to clarify terminology describing migratory types in relation to ecology, behavior and endocrinology. We divide migratory patterns into three types: obligate, nomadic, and fugitive. Obligate migration is characterized by regular and directed annual movements between locations, most commonly for breeding and overwintering, where resources are predictable and sufficient. Nomadic migrations occur less predictably than do obligate migrations as animals make use of potentially rich but ephemeral resources that occur unpredictably in space or time. Fugitive migrations move animals away from an area in response to severe disruption of environmental conditions and occur as part of an emergency life history stage. We also consider partially migratory populations, which include a mix of sedentary and migratory individuals; the movement patterns of partial migrants are expected to fall into one of the three types above. For these various forms of migration, we review our understanding of the environmental cues and endocrine mechanisms that underlie the expression of a migratory state. Several common hormonal mechanisms exist across the varied migratory forms, but there are also important areas where further investigations are needed in order to gain broad insight into the origin of movements and the diversity of migratory patterns. We propose that taking a comparative approach across the migratory types that considers endocrine mechanisms will advance a new understanding of migration biology.

Estrogen levels influence medullary bone quantity and density in female house finches and pine siskins.

Medullary bone, a non-structural osseous tissue, serves as a temporary storage site for calcium that is needed for eggshell production in a number of avian species. Previous research focusing primarily on domesticated species belonging to the Anseriformes, Galliformes, and Columbiformes has indicated that rising estrogen levels are a key signal stimulating medullary bone formation; Passeriformes (which constitute over half of extant bird species and are generally small) have received little attention. In the current study, we examined the influence of estrogen on medullary bone and cortical bone in two species of Passeriformes: the Pine Siskin (Spinus pinus) and the House Finch (Haemorhous mexicanus). Females of these species received either an estradiol implant or were untreated as a control. After 4.5-5months, reproductive condition was assessed and leg (femora) and wing (humeri) bones were collected for analysis using high-resolution (10µm) micro-computed tomography scanning. We found that in both species estradiol-treated females had significantly greater medullary bone quantity in comparison to untreated females, but we found no differences in cortical bone quantity or microarchitecture. We were also able to examine medullary bone density in the pine siskins and found that estradiol treatment significantly increased medullary bone density. Furthermore, beyond the effect of the estradiol treatment, we observed a relationship between medullary bone quantity and ovarian condition that suggests that the timing of medullary bone formation may be related to the onset of yolk deposition in these species. Further research is needed to better understand the precise timing and endocrine regulation of medullary bone formation in Passerines and to determine the extent to which female Passerines rely on medullary bone calcium during the formation of calcified eggshells.

A potential mate influences reproductive development in female, but not male, pine siskins.

The role of photoperiod in avian reproductive timing has been well studied, and we are increasingly recognizing the roles of other environmental cues such as social cues. However, few studies have evaluated the extent to which males and females of the same species respond similarly to the same type of cue. Moreover, previous studies have rarely examined how variation in the quality or nature of a given social cue might modulate its effect. Here, we examine the sensitivity of male and female pine siskins (Spinus pinus) to a potential mate as a stimulatory cue for gonadal recrudescence, and we investigate whether variation in the relationship between a bird and its potential mate modulates the effect of that potential mate. Birds were initially housed without opposite sex birds on a 12L:12D photoperiod with ad libitum food. After gonadal recrudescence had begun males and females were randomly paired with an opposite sex bird or housed alone. An additional group of males was paired with estradiol-implanted females. In males, these social treatments had no effect on testis length, cloacal protuberance length, luteinizing hormone (LH) levels, or testosterone levels. In females, presence of a potential mate had a significant and positive effect on ovary score, defeathering of the brood patch, and LH levels. Among paired birds, the degree of affiliation within a pair corresponded to the extent of reproductive development in females, but not males. Thus, reproductive timing in females appears to be sensitive to both the presence of a potential mate and her relationship with him.

Do female hyaenas choose mates based on tenure?

In their investigation into whether female mate-choice drives male dispersal, Höner et al. argue that female spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) prefer mates whose tenure in the social group is less than the females' age, to avoid paternal incest, and suggest that male dispersal reflects this preference. However, we are not persuaded that females choose mates on the basis of tenure because Höner et al. overlook the alternative hypothesis that dispersal status itself is important in female mate-choice, such that females prefer immigrants over natal males. Like mate-choice based on tenure, choice based on dispersal status reduces the risk of incest.

Society, demography and genetic structure in the spotted hyena.

Spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) are large mammalian carnivores, but their societies, called 'clans', resemble those of such cercopithecine primates as baboons and macaques with respect to their size, hierarchical structure, and frequency of social interaction among both kin and unrelated group-mates. However, in contrast to cercopithecine primates, spotted hyenas regularly hunt antelope and compete with group-mates for access to kills, which are extremely rich food sources, but also rare and ephemeral. This unique occurrence of baboon-like sociality among top-level predators has favoured the evolution of many unusual traits in this species. We briefly review the relevant socio-ecology of spotted hyenas, document great demographic variation but little variation in social structure across the species' range, and describe the long-term fitness consequences of rank-related variation in resource access among clan-mates. We then summarize patterns of genetic relatedness within and between clans, including some from a population that had recently gone through a population bottleneck, and consider the roles of sexually dimorphic dispersal and female mate choice in the generation of these patterns. Finally, we apply social network theory under varying regimes of resource availability to analyse the effects of kinship on the stability of social relationships among members of one large hyena clan in Kenya. Although social bonds among both kin and non-kin are weakest when resource competition is most intense, hyenas sustain strong social relationships with kin year-round, despite constraints imposed by resource limitation. Our analyses suggest that selection might act on both individuals and matrilineal kin groups within clans containing multiple matrilines.

Non-photoperiodic regulation of reproductive physiology in the flexibly breeding pine siskin (Spinus pinus).

In order to time reproduction to coincide with favorable conditions, animals use environmental cues to up- and down-regulate the reproductive axis appropriately. Although photoperiodic cues are one of the best studied of such environmental cues, animals also attend to others such as temperature, food availability, rainfall and social cues. Such non-photic cues are expected to be particularly important for tropical species and temperate-zone species that exhibit flexible or opportunistic breeding schedules. In this study, we investigate the use of non-photic cues, specifically food availability and social cues, to time the initiation of reproductive development in the pine siskin (Spinus pinus), a temperate-zone songbird with a flexible breeding schedule. Following winter solstice, males were housed on a 12L:12D photoperiod with either access to a preferred food, a potential mate (social cue), or both. Control birds received only maintenance diet and no mate. Access to a preferred food had a significant positive effect on testis size and circulating luteinizing hormone (LH). However, we found no effect of social treatment on reproductive development. The effect of the food treatment on reproductive development did not appear to result from effects on body mass or fat, as neither measure differed across treatments. The food treatment influenced not only reproductive physiology, but also reproductive behavior in this species, as access to seeds had a positive effect on affiliation of pairs. This study demonstrates that food is a potent stimulus for the initiation of reproductive development in pine siskins.

Environmental Cue Integration and Phenology in a Changing World.

Many organisms use environmental cues to time events in their annual cycle, such as reproduction and migration, with the appropriate timing of such events impacting survival and reproduction. As the climate changes, evolved mechanisms of cue use may facilitate or limit the capacity of organisms to adjust phenology accordingly, and organisms often integrate multiple cues to fine-tune the timing of annual events. Yet, our understanding of how suites of cues are integrated to generate observed patterns of seasonal timing remains nascent. We present an overarching framework to describe variation in the process of cue integration in the context of seasonal timing. This framework incorporates both cue dependency and cue interaction. We then summarize how existing empirical findings across a range of vertebrate species and life cycle events fit into this framework. Finally, we use a theoretical model to explore how variation in modes of cue integration may impact the ability of organisms to adjust phenology adaptively in the face of climate change. Such a theoretical approach can facilitate the exploration of complex scenarios that present challenges to study in vivo but capture important complexity of the natural world.

HIV Incidence by Male Circumcision Status From the Population-Based HIV Impact Assessment Surveys-Eight Sub-Saharan African Countries, 2015-2017.

BACKGROUND: Male circumcision (MC) offers men lifelong partial protection from heterosexually acquired HIV infection. The impact of MC on HIV incidence has not been quantified in nationally representative samples. Data from the population-based HIV impact assessments were used to compare HIV incidence by MC status in countries implementing voluntary medical MC (VMMC) programs. METHODS: Data were pooled from population-based HIV impact assessments conducted in Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe from 2015 to 2017. Incidence was measured using a recent infection testing algorithm and analyzed by self-reported MC status distinguishing between medical and nonmedical MC. Country, marital status, urban setting, sexual risk behaviors, and mean population HIV viral load among women as an indicator of treatment scale-up were included in a random-effects logistic regression model using pooled survey weights. Analyses were age stratified (15-34 and 35-59 years). Annualized incidence rates and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) and incidence differences were calculated between medically circumcised and uncircumcised men. RESULTS: Men 15-34 years reporting medical MC had lower HIV incidence than uncircumcised men [0.04% (95% CI: 0.00% to 0.10%) versus 0.34% (95% CI: 0.10% to 0.57%), respectively; P value = 0.01]; whereas among men 35-59 years, there was no significant incidence difference [1.36% (95% CI: 0.32% to 2.39%) versus 0.55% (95% CI: 0.14% to 0.67%), respectively; P value = 0.14]. DISCUSSION: Medical MC was associated with lower HIV incidence in men aged 15-34 years in nationally representative surveys in Africa. These findings are consistent with the expected ongoing VMMC program impact and highlight the importance of VMMC for the HIV response in Africa.

Post-weaning maternal effects and the evolution of female dominance in the spotted hyena.

Mammalian societies in which females dominate males are rare, and the factors favouring the evolution of female dominance have yet to be clearly identified. We propose a new hypothesis for the evolution of female dominance and test its predictions with empirical data from the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), a well-studied species characterized by female dominance. We suggest that constraints imposed by the development of a feeding apparatus specialized for bone cracking, in combination with the intensive feeding competition characteristic of spotted hyenas, led to the evolution of female dominance. Specifically, we propose that protracted development of the feeding apparatus in young hyenas led to selection for increased aggressiveness in females as a compensatory mechanism for mothers to secure food access for their young after weaning. Our analyses yielded results consistent with this hypothesis. Morphological and behavioural measurements indicate that skull development is indeed protracted in this species; spotted hyenas do not achieve adult skull size or feeding performance capabilities until after sexual maturity. The period between weaning and completed skull development is particularly challenging, as indicated by high mortality. Finally, maternal presence between weaning and full skull maturity, as well as the relative ability of females to aggressively displace conspecifics from food, are important determinants of offspring survival.