EVALUATING THE USE OF A BUTORPHANOL-AZAPERONE-MEDETOMIDINE FIXED-DOSE COMBINATION FOR STANDING SEDATION IN AFRICAN ELEPHANTS (LOXODONTA AFRICANA).

This study investigated the use of a fixed-dose combination of 30 mg/ml butorphanol, 12 mg/ml azaperone, and 12 mg/ml medetomidine for the standing sedation of captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). In total, seven females (mean age 19.6 yr; range 6-31 yr) and six males (mean age 33.5 yr; range 9-35 yr) were sedated. The estimated dose was 0.0005 ± 0.0001 ml/kg and 0.006 ± 0.001 ml/cm shoulder height, which resulted in a dose of 0.016 ± 0.002 mg/kg or 0.19 ± 0.04 mg/cm shoulder height butorphanol, 0.006 ± 0.0008 mg/ kg or 0.076 ± 0.015 mg/cm shoulder height azaperone, and 0.006 ± 0.0008 mg/kg or 0.076 ± 0.015 mg/cm medetomidine. First signs of sedation were observed within 3-10 min (mean 6 ± 2 min) after darting, and monitoring of the animals started on average at 24 ± 9 min after darting. No bradycardia was observed in any of the elephants (mean heart rate 40.0 ± 6.55 beats/min), although all the animals were mildly hypotensive (mean blood pressure 118.5/86 [94.5]). Rectal temperatures fell within acceptable ranges, and respiratory parameters were stable in all the animals throughout sedation and fell within the standard ranges reported for conscious, standing elephants. Only one elephant had clinically significant hypoxemia characterized by a partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) < 60 mm Hg. This elephant was also hypercapnic (PaCO2 > 50 mm Hg), although pH and peripheral capillary oxygen saturation fell within acceptable ranges. None of the elephants reacted to moderately painful stimuli while sedated. The combination was reversed with intramuscular injections of naltrexone (1 mg for every 1 mg butorphanol) and atipamezole (5 mg for every 1 mg medetomidine). Recovery was smooth and calm in all the animals. Time from injection of the reversals until the first signs of recovery was 4.6 ± 2.01 min (range 1-8 min).

EVALUATION OF TWO MEDETOMIDINE-AZAPERONE-ALFAXALONE COMBINATIONS IN CAPTIVE ROCKY MOUNTAIN ELK (CERVUS ELAPHUS NELSONI).

Alfaxalone has been successfully used intramuscularly (im) combined with medetomidine and azaperone for immobilization of small ungulates. An experimental 40 mg/ml alfaxalone solution (RD0387) was recently formulated for reduced injection volume. The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy and cardiopulmonary effects of high-concentration alfaxalone combined with medetomidine and azaperone for the intramuscular immobilization of captive Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus nelsoni). Seven adult female elk were used in a crossover design in which they were administered alfaxalone 1 mg/kg, medetomidine 0.05 mg/kg, and azaperone 0.1 mg/kg or alfaxalone 0.5 mg/kg, medetomidine 0.1 mg/kg, and azaperone 0.1 mg/kg im approximately 3 wk apart. Drugs were delivered to each elk in a chute by hand injection. Once recumbent, elk were placed in sternal recumbency for a period of 30 min, during which time level of sedation, response to minor procedures, heart rate, respiratory rate, rectal temperature, oxygen saturation, and direct arterial blood pressures were recorded every 5 min. Arterial blood gases were performed every 15 min. At 30 min, elk were administered atipamezole 0.25 or 0.5 mg/kg im and recovery quality and times were recorded. Statistical comparisons were made by t test, Wilcoxon signed rank test, and repeated measures analysis (significance level P < 0.05). Both drug combinations provided effective immobilization for 30 min, with induction and recovery time and quality similar to other medetomidine-based combinations used in elk. Cardiopulmonary effects included bradycardia, hypertension, and hypoxemia that resolved with oxygen supplementation. The average injection volume in the low-dose alfaxalone combination was approximately 5 ml. These combinations provided deep sedation and the ability to perform minor procedures in captive elk, with acceptable cardiopulmonary parameters as long as supplemental oxygen was provided.

Asymptomatic deer excrete infectious prions in faeces.

Infectious prion diseases-scrapie of sheep and chronic wasting disease (CWD) of several species in the deer family-are transmitted naturally within affected host populations. Although several possible sources of contagion have been identified in excretions and secretions from symptomatic animals, the biological importance of these sources in sustaining epidemics remains unclear. Here we show that asymptomatic CWD-infected mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) excrete CWD prions in their faeces long before they develop clinical signs of prion disease. Intracerebral inoculation of irradiated deer faeces into transgenic mice overexpressing cervid prion protein (PrP) revealed infectivity in 14 of 15 faecal samples collected from five deer at 7-11 months before the onset of neurological disease. Although prion concentrations in deer faeces were considerably lower than in brain tissue from the same deer collected at the end of the disease, the estimated total infectious dose excreted in faeces by an infected deer over the disease course may approximate the total contained in a brain. Prolonged faecal prion excretion by infected deer provides a plausible natural mechanism that might explain the high incidence and efficient horizontal transmission of CWD within deer herds, as well as prion transmission among other susceptible cervids.

Clearance of Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae in Captive Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis) Following Extended Oral Doxycycline Treatment.

Respiratory disease is a significant barrier for bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) conservation, and a need remains for management options in both captive and free-ranging populations. We treated Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae infection in six bighorn lambs and five bighorn yearlings at two captive research facilities with twice daily oral doxycycline for 8 wk or longer. Doses of 5 mg/kg twice daily mixed in formula for lambs and 10 mg/kg twice daily mixed in moistened pellets for older lambs and yearlings were tolerated well with minimal side effects. All animals in this case report remain Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae free over 2 yr later. Further evaluation is warranted to confirm efficacy of this therapeutic approach.

MOUNTAIN LIONS (PUMA CONCOLOR) RESIST LONG-TERM DIETARY EXPOSURE TO CHRONIC WASTING DISEASE.

For nearly 18 yr, we evaluated susceptibility of captive mountain lions (Puma concolor) to chronic wasting disease (CWD) in the face of repeated exposure associated with consuming infected cervid carcasses. Three mountain lions with a monomorphic prion protein gene (PRNP) sequence identical to that described previously for the species had access to parts of ≥432 infected carcasses during ≥2,013 feeding occasions, conservatively representing >14,000 kg of infected feed material, during May 2002 to March 2020. The proportion of diet in infected carcass material averaged 43% overall but differed from year to year (minimally 11-74%). Most infected carcasses were mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus; ∼75%). We observed no clinical signs suggestive of progressive encephalopathy or other neurologic disease over the ∼14.5-17.9 yr between first known exposure and eventual death. Histopathology revealed no spongiform changes or immunostaining suggestive of prion infection in multiple sections of nervous and lymphoid tissue. Similarly, none of 133 free-ranging mountain lion carcasses sampled opportunistically during 2004-20 showed immunostaining consistent with prion infection in sections of brainstem or lymph node. These findings align with prior work suggesting that CWD-associated prions face strong barriers to natural transmission among species outside the family Cervidae.

Apparent stability masks underlying change in a mule deer herd with unmanaged chronic wasting disease.

The contagious prion disease "chronic wasting disease" (CWD) infects mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and related species. Unchecked epidemics raise ecological, socioeconomic, and public health concerns. Prion infection shortens a deer's lifespan, and when prevalence (proportion of adults infected) becomes sufficiently high CWD can affect herd dynamics. Understanding population responses over time is key to forecasting long-term impacts. Here we describe unexpected stability in prevalence and abundance in a mule deer herd where CWD has been left unmanaged. High apparent prevalence (~30%) since at least 2005 likely drove observed changes in the proportion and age distribution of wild-type native prion protein (PRNP) gene homozygotes among deer sampled. Predation by mountain lions (Puma concolor) may be helping keep CWD in check. Despite stable appearances, prion disease nonetheless impairs adult survival and likely resilience in this deer herd, limiting its potential for growth despite refuge from hunter harvest and favorable habitat and winter conditions.

Inferring Chronic Wasting Disease Incidence from Prevalence Data.

Incidence of chronic wasting disease infection showed strong, positive correlation (r≥0.944) with apparent prevalence among female and male mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in seven herds previously studied in Colorado and Wyoming, US. With attention to monitoring method consistency and context, inferring that observed prevalence trends reflect underlying epidemic dynamics in mule deer herds appears justifiable.

Reduction of Chronic Wasting Disease Prion Seeding Activity following Digestion by Mountain Lions.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a transmissible prion disease first observed in the 1960s in North America. This invariably fatal disease affects multiple cervid species in the wild and in captivity. In addition to the several known transmission pathways involving cervid host species, prions have been detected in the feces of crows and coyotes after consumption of experimentally spiked tissues. This raises questions about the role of cervid consumers in the perpetuation of CWD. Mountain lions have been shown to preferentially select CWD-infected prey and are also apparently resistant to infection. In this study, two captive mountain lions were fed ground mule deer muscle tissue spiked with brain-derived CWD prions, and lion feces were collected for 1 week afterward. The input brain and resulting fecal materials were analyzed using the highly sensitive real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay to quantify prion seeding activity. We recovered only 2.8 to 3.9% of input CWD prions after passage through the mountain lions' gastrointestinal tracts. Interestingly, CWD prions were shed only in the first defecation following consumption. Our data support the possibility that mountain lions feeding upon infected carcasses could excrete CWD prions in their feces over a short period of time but also suggest that most of the ingested prions are eliminated or sequestered by this large predator. IMPORTANCE CWD prions appear to spread naturally among susceptible cervid species in captivity and in the wild. A better understanding of all the ways these prions move, persist, and subsequently infect target species through the environment is critical to developing comprehensive disease control strategies. In our study, we show limited, transient pass-through of CWD prions in an apex predator, the mountain lion, using the highly sensitive RT-QuIC assay on feces collected after lions were fed prion-spiked muscle tissue. Prions were detected in feces only in the first defecation after exposure. Moreover, the amount of CWD prions recovered in feces was reduced by >96% after passing through the lion digestive system. This indicates that mountain lions may have some potential to distribute CWD prions within their home ranges but that they also effectively eliminate most of the CWD prions they consume.

EFFECT OF ORAL COPPER SUPPLEMENTATION ON SUSCEPTIBILITY IN WHITE-TAILED DEER (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS) TO CHRONIC WASTING DISEASE.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is an infectious disease, but reported associations suggest several metals-especially copper (Cu) and manganese-potentially play a role in this and other prion diseases. To assess the utility of dietary Cu supplementation in protecting white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from CWD, we compared incidence and disease course among individuals naturally exposed to CWD while being maintained on sustained-release Cu boluses or unsupplemented (control). Oral Cu supplementation increased liver tissue Cu concentrations compared to controls but did not affect susceptibility to CWD or survival after natural exposure in the captive white-tailed deer we studied. Over the 27 mo study, 89% (8/9) of the Cu-supplemented deer and 86% (6/7) of control deer became CWD-infected. Survival to 27 mo postexposure did not differ between Cu-supplemented and control deer: model-averaged survival probabilities to 27 mo were 0.45-0.47 for all combinations of Cu treatment and PRNP gene haplotype presence. The PRNP gene haplotype influenced the probability of deer remaining biopsy negative for at least 17 mo but did not affect overall susceptibility.

Tissue Residue Levels of the Tranquilizer Combination of Butorphanol, Azaperone, and Medetomidine, and the Antagonists, Naltrexone, Atipamezole, and Tolazoline, in Black Bears (Ursus americanus) Postimmobilization.

The tranquilizer combination of butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine (BAM) has shown good efficacy for immobilization of wildlife, including black bears (Ursus americanus). BAM is antagonized with a combination of naltrexone and atipamezole. We immobilized 19 adult captive wild caught black bears and, except for three bears that were euthanized immediately, bears were recovered with naltrexone and atipamezole. Tissue residues (≥0.01 ppm) for the tranquilizers butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine were detected in liver and muscle of all three bears euthanized on day 0 postinjection (PI). Azaperone was not detected after 1 d PI. Residue for medetomidine was detected in two bears: in the liver 3 d PI and in the kidney 6 d PI. Butorphanol was reported in three bears: in fat 5 d PI, in kidney 6 d PI, and, surprisingly, in kidney, muscle, and fat 7 d PI. No tissue residues were detected in the three bears euthanized at 8 d PI. Tissue residues for the antagonists, naltrexone and atipamezole, were detected in bears euthanized 2 and 6 d PI, but not in tissues from animals euthanized at 7 or 8 d PI.

Surviving in steep terrain: a lab-to-field assessment of locomotor costs for wild mountain lions (Puma concolor).

BACKGROUND: Under current scenarios of climate change and habitat loss, many wild animals, especially large predators, are moving into novel energetically challenging environments. Consequently, changes in terrain associated with such moves may heighten energetic costs and effect the decline of populations in new localities. METHODS: To examine locomotor costs of a large carnivorous mammal moving in mountainous habitats, the oxygen consumption of captive pumas (Puma concolor) was measured during treadmill locomotion on level and incline (6.8°) surfaces. These data were used to predict energetic costs of locomotor behaviours of free-ranging pumas equipped with GPS/accelerometer collars in California's Santa Cruz Mountains. RESULTS: Incline walking resulted in a 42.0% ± 7.2 SEM increase in the costs of transport compared to level performance. Pumas negotiated steep terrain by traversing across hillsides (mean hill incline 17.2° ± 0.3 SEM; mean path incline 7.3° ± 0.1 SEM). Pumas also walked more slowly up steeper paths, thereby minimizing the energetic impact of vertical terrains. Estimated daily energy expenditure (DEE) based on GPS-derived speeds of free-ranging pumas was 18.3 MJ day- 1 ± 0.2 SEM. Calculations show that a 20 degree increase in mean steepness of the terrain would increase puma DEE by less than 1% as they only spend a small proportion (10%) of their day travelling. They also avoided elevated costs by utilizing slower speeds and shallower path angles. CONCLUSIONS: While many factors influence survival in novel habitats, we illustrate the importance of behaviours which reduce locomotor costs when traversing new, energetically challenging environments, and demonstrate that these behaviours are utilised by pumas in the wild.

Effects of selenium supplementation and sample storage time on blood indices of selenium status in bighorn sheep.

Periodic pneumonia outbreaks cause large-scale die-offs that threaten the viability of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) populations. Bighorns are highly susceptible to pneumonia, and in some cases this susceptibility may be exacerbated by trace mineral deficiencies. To evaluate responses to injectable selenium supplementation, eight captive bighorn sheep were treated with either an injectable sodium selenite supplement or a saline control. We collected 6-ml blood aliquots before and at 1, 6, and 12 wk posttreatment. We submitted one set of aliquots immediately to measure selenium (Se) and zinc (Zn) concentrations and glutathione-peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity; additional aliquots were held at about 22 C and then submitted at 1, 3, and 7 days postcollection to assess effects of storage on these measures. Neither Se nor GSH-Px were affected by selenite injections. Both Se and GSH-Px demonstrated small linear decays over the 7-day storage period (0.011 ppm/day [SE=0.0027] and 15.78 mmole/l/sec/day [SE=6.88], respectively); in contrast, Zn concentrations in stored samples increased logarithmically (0.35 ppm/day on the natural log scale). Blood Se and GSH-Px were not correlated in sampled bighorns; however, because all values for both measures were within normal limits, lack of correlation did not affect interpretation of these data in our study.

EVALUATION OF CHEMICAL IMMOBILIZATION IN CAPTIVE BLACK BEARS ( URSUS AMERICANUS) RECEIVING A COMBINATION OF NALBUPHINE, MEDETOMIDINE, AND AZAPERONE.

To assess potential seasonal differences in responses to immobilization, we sedated eight orphaned yearling black bears ( Ursus americanus) being held for rehabilitation at a wildlife facility in Colorado, US, using a premixed combination of nalbuphine (40 mg/mL), azaperone (10 mg/mL), and medetomidine (10 mg/mL; NalMed-A) in October (autumn) prior to hibernation and again after emergence in May (spring) prior to their release. We dosed all bears at 1 mL NalMed-A per estimated 45 kg body mass (1 mL NalMed-A/45 kg), delivered by intramuscular injection using a pole syringe, to facilitate routine examination and ear tagging. Arterial blood gases were measured to assess oxygenation and acid-base status of bears both pre and post oxygen supplementation. The mean (SE) dose calculated post hoc was 0.9 (0.04) mg nalbuphine/kg, 0.2 (0.01) mg azaperone/kg, and 0.2 (0.01) mg medetomidine/kg. The mean induction time was 8 (1) min for six of the bears in October and 6 (1) min for eight bears in May. The NalMed-A combination provided good sedation in captive yearling black bears in autumn and spring and was effectively antagonized with a combination of naltrexone and atipamezole. Mild hypoxemia (PaO2: 53.5-54.4 mmHg) was the most significant side effect and was corrected (PaO2: 68.4-150.1 mmHg) with supplemental oxygen administered at 2-5 L/min for 5 min (point of sampling).

Effects of External Oiling and Rehabilitation on Hematological, Biochemical, and Blood Gas Analytes in Ring-Billed Gulls (Larus delawarensis).

Avian species experience extensive morbidity and mortality following large-scale oil spills, often resulting in oiled birds being rescued, and admitted to rehabilitation. Our objective was to experimentally establish time-specific, descriptive blood analyte data following sublethal oil exposure and subsequent rehabilitation. Thirty wild Ring-billed Gulls (Larus delawarensis) were randomly allocated to three treatment groups of 10 birds each. One treatment group served as controls and two treatment groups were externally oiled daily for 3 days with weathered MC252 oil collected from the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, mimicking the upper threshold of the US Fish and Wildlife Service's moderate oiling classification. Following external oiling, one oiled treatment group was cleaned via standard rehabilitation practices. Serial venous blood samples were collected for a month to measure packed cell volume, total solids, blood gas and select plasma biochemistry analytes, total white blood cell estimates and differentials, and reticulocyte estimates. We found that both sublethal oil exposure and aspects of captivity were associated with a mild non-regenerative anemia. No other differences in venous blood gas and biochemical analytes as well as white blood cell concentrations were observed among the three groups. These findings suggest that the mild anemia seen in oiled birds undergoing rehabilitation is possibly multifactorial and that moderately oiled gulls have subtle, but potentially not insignificant clinicopathological abnormalities following sublethal oil exposure. Oiled gulls did not develop any clinicopathological derangements post-rehabilitation, suggesting current standard practices for rehabilitation cause minimal morbidity in clinically stable, moderately oiled gulls.

Bovine viral diarrhea in captive Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep associated with administration of a contaminated modified-live bluetongue virus vaccine.

In late summer 2017, we observed acute, fatal cases of bovine viral diarrhea in captive Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep ( Ovis canadensis canadensis) in Colorado following use of a contaminated modified-live bluetongue virus vaccine. Following vaccination, at least 14 of 28 (50%) vaccinated bighorn sheep developed hemorrhagic diarrhea, and 6 of 28 (21%) vaccinated bighorn sheep died. Autopsy findings were predominantly necroulcerative-to-necrohemorrhagic gastrointestinal lesions. Less frequent lesions included suffusive hemorrhages of serosal surfaces of abdominal viscera, and lymphoid necrosis in gut-associated lymphoid tissues. All of the 6 bighorn sheep that died were positive on real-time PCR (rtPCR) for bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) in multiple tissues. Seroconversion to BVDV-1 and immunohistochemistry for BVDV in affected tissues confirmed rtPCR results. Next-generation sequencing confirmed a match between the infecting strain of BVDV-1b and the contaminated vaccine.

Immobilization of black bears (Ursus americanus) with a combination of butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine.

Sixteen captive and five free-ranging black bears (Ursus americanus) were immobilized with a combination of butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine (BAM). The BAM drug combination was premixed using 0.5 ml butorphanol (30 mg/ml), 0.25 ml azaperone (50 mg/ml), and 0.25 ml medetomidine (20 mg/ml) per milliliter to yield a final mix of (15 mg butorphanol+12.5 mg azaperone+5 mg medetomidine)/ml. This combination, dosed at 0.4 ml BAM/approximately 23 kg estimated body weight, provided a mean induction time of 10 min (95% confidence interval [CI]=2 min), consistent anesthesia without apparent adverse effects, and smooth recovery (mean=15 min, 95% CI=4 min) after antagonism with atipamezole (5 mg/mg medetomidine) alone or in combination with naltrexone (5 mg/mg butorphanol). Based on our initial observations, BAM appears to be a reversible and accessible drug combination for immobilizing black bears that merits further evaluation for field use.

Evaluation of intramuscular butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine and nasal oxygen insufflation for the chemical immobilization of white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus.

Chemical immobilization of wildlife often includes opioids or cyclohexamines. These substances are problematic as a result of their required storage, handling, and record-keeping protocols. A potentially useful alternative sedation protocol includes a combination of butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine (BAM: 0.43 mg/kg butorphanol, 0.36 mg/kg azaperone, 0.14 mg/kg medetomidine). One risk of wildlife immobilization with any drug combination is hypoxemia. This may be of particular importance when using an alpha 2 agonist such as medetomidine because of its powerful vasoconstrictive effect. In this prospective study, the BAM combination was evaluated for chemical immobilization of white-tailed deer. Additionally, selected physiologic parameters associated with BAM immobilization, including oxygen saturation via pulse oximetry and arterial blood gas measurement, with and without nasal insufflation of oxygen at a relatively low flow of 3 L/min, were evaluated. The BAM combination resulted in a predictable onset of sedation, with a mean induction time to lateral recumbency of 9.8 +/- 3.6 min. All deer recovered smoothly within a range of 5-20 min after reversal with intramuscular administration of naltrexone, atipamazole, and tolazoline (NAT). Clinically relevant decreases in arterial partial pressure of oxygen (PaO2) and oxygen saturation (SpO2) were observed in animals not receiving supplemental oxygen, while both parameters significantly improved for oxygen-supplemented deer. Pulse oximetry with this protocol was an unreliable indicator of oxygen saturation. In this study, altitude, recumbency, hypoventilation, butorphanol- and medetomidine-specific effects, as well as the potential for alpha 2 agonist-induced pulmonary changes all may have contributed to the development of hypoxemia. Overall, capture of white-tailed deer with the BAM/NAT protocol resulted in excellent chemical immobilization and reversal. Because the BAM combination caused significant hypoxemia that is unreliably detected by pulse oximetry but that may be resolved with nasal oxygen insufflation, routine use of oxygen supplementation is recommended.

EVALUATION OF A TEST AND CULL STRATEGY FOR REDUCING PREVALENCE OF CHRONIC WASTING DISEASE IN MULE DEER ( ODOCOILEUS HEMIONUS).

We evaluated a test and cull strategy for lowering chronic wasting disease (CWD) prevalence in a naturally-infected, free-ranging mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus) herd wintering in the town of Estes Park, Colorado, US and in nearby Rocky Mountain National Park. We tested 48-68% of the estimated number of adult (≥1 yr old) deer annually for 5 yr via tonsil biopsy immunohistochemistry (IHC), collecting 1,251 samples from >700 individuals and removing IHC-positive deer. Among males, CWD prevalence during the last 3 yr of selective culling was lower (one-sided Fisher's exact test P=0.014) than in the period prior. In contrast, CWD prevalence among females before culling and after culling were equivalent ( P=0.777). Relatively higher annual testing of males (mean 77%) compared to females (mean 51%) might have contributed to differences seen in responses to management. A more intensive and sustained effort or modified spatial approach might have reduced prevalence more consistently in both sexes. Limitations of this technique in wider management application include cost and labor as well as property access and animal tolerance to repeated capture. However, elements of this approach could potentially be used to augment harvest-based disease management.

Tissue Residue Levels after Immobilization of Rocky Mountain Elk ( Cervus elaphus nelsoni) using a Combination of Nalbuphine, Medetomidine, and Azaperone Antagonized with Naltrexone, Atipamezole, and Tolazoline.

Previous studies demonstrated that nalbuphine, medetomidine, and azaperone (NalMed-A) can effectively immobilize adult elk ( Cervus elaphus nelsoni), and be antagonized using naltrexone and atipamezole, with or without tolazoline. To assess duration of tissue residues for this immobilization package, we immobilized 14 captive adult elk with NalMed-A, then euthanized animals and collected tissues 0, 3, 6, 14, 21, or 28 d later. Except for two animals euthanized immediately, all elk were recovered using naltrexone, atipamezole, and tolazoline. Tissue residues (≥0.01 parts per million) for the tranquilizers nalbuphine, medetomidine, and azaperone were detected in liver and muscle tissue samples from elk euthanized within 40 min postinjection (PI) and one animal that died 12-24 h PI, but not in tissues from any of the animals euthanized at 3, 6, 14, 21, or 28 d PI. Tissue residues for the antagonists naltrexone, atipamezole, and tolazoline were detected in liver and muscle of the animal that died 12-24 h PI. Only naltrexone was detected in liver from the two elk euthanized at day 3, and no antagonist residues were detected thereafter.

Oral papillomatosis in Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis).

We observed 11 cases of oral papillomatosis among 48 free-ranging Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis) that had been shipped to Colorado for translocation purposes. Lesions were 1-3 mm, multifocal, nonpigmented sessile masses and occurred on the ventral lingual surface. Adverse clinical signs were not observed. Six of the 11 cases resolved and the remainder appeared to be self-limiting when affected animals were examined