Comparison of nerve growth factor receptor binding models using heterodimeric muteins.

Nerve growth factor (NGF) is a homodimer that binds to two distinct receptor types, TrkA and p75, to support survival and differentiation of neurons. The high-affinity binding on the cell surface is believed to involve a heteroreceptor complex, but its exact nature is unclear. We developed a heterodimer (heteromutein) of two NGF muteins that can bind p75 and TrkA on opposite sides of the heterodimer, but not two TrkA receptors. Previously described muteins are Δ9/13 that is TrkA negative and 7-84-103 that is signal selective through TrkA. The heteromutein (Htm1) was used to study the heteroreceptor complex formation and function, in the putative absence of NGF-induced TrkA dimerization. Cellular binding assays indicated that Htm1 does not bind TrkA as efficiently as wild-type (wt) NGF but has better affinity than either homodimeric mutein. Htm1, 7-84-103, and Δ9/13 were each able to compete for cold-temperature, cold-chase stable binding on PC12 cells, indicating that binding to p75 was required for a portion of this high-affinity binding. Survival, neurite outgrowth, and MAPK signaling in PC12 cells also showed a reduced response for Htm1, compared with wtNGF, but was better than the parent muteins in the order wtNGF > Htm1 > 7-84-103 >> Δ9/13. Htm1 and 7-84-103 demonstrated similar levels of survival on cells expressing only TrkA. In the longstanding debate on the NGF receptor binding mechanism, our data support the ligand passing of NGF from p75 to TrkA involving a transient heteroreceptor complex of p75-NGF-TrkA.

Ligand-dependent TrkA activity in brain differentially affects spatial learning and long-term memory.

In the central nervous system, the nerve growth factor (NGF) receptor TrkA is expressed primarily in cholinergic neurons that are implicated in spatial learning and memory, whereas the NGF receptor p75(NTR) is expressed in many neuronal populations and glia. We asked whether selective TrkA activation may have a different impact on learning, short-term memory, and long-term memory. We also asked whether TrkA activation might affect cognition differently in wild-type mice versus mice with cognitive deficits due to transgenic overexpression of mutant amyloid-precursor protein (APP mice). Mice were treated with wild-type NGF (a ligand of TrkA and p75(NTR)) or with selective pharmacological agonists of TrkA that do not bind to p75(NTR). In APP mice, the selective TrkA agonists significantly improved learning and short-term memory. These improvements are associated with a reduction of soluble Aß levels in the cortex and AKT activation in the cortex and hippocampus. However, this improved phenotype did not translate into improved long-term memory. In normal wild-type mice, none of the treatments affected learning or short-term memory, but a TrkA-selective agonist caused persistent deficits in long-term memory. The deficit in wild-type mice was associated temporally, in the hippocampus, with increased AKT activity, increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor precursor, increased neurotrophin receptor homolog-2 (p75-related protein), and long-term depression. Together, these data indicate that selective TrkA activation affects cognition but does so differently in impaired APP mice versus normal wild-type mice. Understanding mechanisms that govern learning and memory is important for better treatment of cognitive disorders.

Chronic and acute models of retinal neurodegeneration TrkA activity are neuroprotective whereas p75NTR activity is neurotoxic through a paracrine mechanism.

In normal adult retinas, NGF receptor TrkA is expressed in retinal ganglion cells (RGC), whereas glia express p75(NTR). During retinal injury, endogenous NGF, TrkA, and p75(NTR) are up-regulated. Paradoxically, neither endogenous NGF nor exogenous administration of wild type NGF can protect degenerating RGCs, even when administered at high frequency. Here we elucidate the relative contribution of NGF and each of its receptors to RGC degeneration in vivo. During retinal degeneration due to glaucoma or optic nerve transection, treatment with a mutant NGF that only activates TrkA, or with a biological response modifier that prevents endogenous NGF and pro-NGF from binding to p75(NTR) affords significant neuroprotection. Treatment of normal eyes with an NGF mutant-selective p75(NTR) agonist causes progressive RGC death, and in injured eyes it accelerates RGC death. The mechanism of p75(NTR) action during retinal degeneration due to glaucoma is paracrine, by increasing production of neurotoxic proteins TNF-α and α(2)-macroglobulin. Antagonists of p75(NTR) inhibit TNF-α and α(2)-macroglobulin up-regulation during disease, and afford neuroprotection. These data reveal a balance of neuroprotective and neurotoxic mechanisms in normal and diseased retinas, and validate each neurotrophin receptor as a pharmacological target for neuroprotection.

Identification of critical residues within the conserved and specificity patches of nerve growth factor leading to survival or differentiation.

Afflicted neurons in Alzheimer disease have been shown to display an imbalance in the expression of TrkA and p75(NTR) at the cell surface, and administration of nerve growth factor (NGF) has been considered and attempted for treatment. However, wild-type NGF causes extensive elaboration of neurites while providing survival support. This study was aimed at developing recombinant NGF muteins that did not support neuritogenesis while maintaining the survival response. Critical residues were identified at the ligand-receptor interface by point mutagenesis that played a greater importance in neuritogenesis versus survival. By combining point mutations, two survival-selective recombinant NGF muteins, i.e./7-84-103 and KKE/7-84-103, were generated. Both muteins reduced neuritogenesis in PC12 (TrkA(+)/p75(NTR+)) cells by >90%, while concurrently retaining near wild-type survival activity in MG139 (TrkA(+) only) and PCNA fibroblast (p75(NTR+)-only) cells. Additionally, survival in both naive and terminally differentiated PC12 cells was shown to be intermediate between NGF and negative controls. Dose-response curves with 7-84-103 showed that the differentiation curve was shifted by about 100-fold, whereas the EC(50) for survival was only increased by 3.3-fold. Surface plasmon resonance analysis revealed a 200-fold decrease in binding of 7-84-103 to TrkA. The retention of cell survival was attributed to maintenance of signaling through the Akt survival pathway with reduced MAPK signaling for differentiation. The effect of key mutations along the NGF receptor interface are transmitted inside the cell to enable the generation of survival-selective recombinant NGF muteins that may represent novel pharmacologic lead agents for the amelioration of Alzheimer disease.

Characterization and biological activities of humic substances from mumie.

Mumie, a semihard black resin formed by long-term humification, is believed to have therapeutic properties. Although mumie has been used in folk medicine since ancient times, there is little information available concerning the physicochemical properties of its constituents and the mechanisms of its therapeutic efficacy. For this study crude mumie was fractionated into fulvic acid (FA), humic acid (HA), humin, hymatomelanic acid, and two low molecular weight fractions (LMW1 and LMW2). The FA fraction was divided into five subfractions, FA1-FA5. The mumie fractions were characterized by IR, UV-vis, and fluorescence spectroscopy. Total carbohydrate content in the fractions was analyzed using the phenol reaction method. The relative content of polar groups and nonpolar hydrocarbon fragments in the mumie fractions correlated well with solubility in an aqueous medium. Biological characterization was performed using only the FA fractions. FA1 and FA2 enhanced the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide in murine peritoneal macrophages, as determined with the use of 2',7'-dichlorofluorescin diacetate and Griess reagent, respectively. The enchancement of ROS and nitric oxide production correlated with the level of total carbohydrates in the fractions. Murine splenic lymphocytes treated with FA1 showed a dose-dependent increase in [(3)H]thymidine uptake. These findings suggest that FA derived from mumie has immunomodulatory activity.

During glaucoma, alpha2-macroglobulin accumulates in aqueous humor and binds to nerve growth factor, neutralizing neuroprotection.

PURPOSE: Glaucoma is an optic neuropathy caused by the chronic and progressive death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), resulting in irreversible blindness. Ocular hypertension is a major risk factor, but RGC death often continues after ocular hypertension is normalized, and can take place with normal tension. Continuous RGC death was related in rodents and humans to the local upregulation of neurotoxic proteins, such as TNF-α. In rat models of glaucoma, ocular hypertension also upregulates the expression of α2-macroglobulin, which is neurotoxic. α2-macroglobulin upregulation in the retina is long-lived, even after high IOP is reduced with medication. α2-macroglobulin is examined as a possible biomarker in human glaucoma, and a possible neurotoxic mechanism of action is sought. METHODS: Quantitative Western blotting of α2-macroglobulin in samples obtained from aqueous humor (human and rat) and retina (rat) was conducted. Ex vivo neuronal survival assays and nerve growth factor-α2-macroglobulin binding studies using surface plasmon resonance were used. RESULTS: Increased soluble α2-macroglobulin protein is also present in the aqueous humor in a rat glaucoma model, as well as in the aqueous humor of human glaucoma patients but not in cataract patients. One mechanism by which α2-macroglobulin is neurotoxic is by inhibiting the neuroprotective activity of nerve growth factor via TrkA receptors. CONCLUSIONS: This work further documents a potential novel mechanism of RGC death and a potential biomarker or therapeutic target for glaucoma.

TrkA receptor "hot spots" for binding of NT-3 as a heterologous ligand.

Neurotrophins signal via Trk tyrosine kinase receptors. Nerve growth factor (NGF) is the cognate ligand for TrkA, the brain-derived neurotrophic factor for TrkB, and NT-3 for TrkC. NT-3 also binds TrkA as a lower affinity heterologous ligand. Because neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) interactions with TrkA are biologically relevant, we aimed to define the TrkA "hot spot" functional docking sites of NT-3. The Trk extracellular domain consists of two cysteine-rich subdomains (D1 and D3), flanking a leucine-rich subdomain (D2), and two immunoglobulin-like subdomains IgC1(D4) and IgC2(D5). Previously, the D5 subdomain was defined as the primary ligand-binding site of neurotrophins for their cognate receptors (e.g. NGF binds and activates through TRKA-D5 hot spots). Here binding studies with truncated and chimeric extracellular subdomains show that TRKA-D5 also includes an NT-3 docking and activation hot spot (site 1), and competition studies show that the NGF and NT-3 hot spots on TRKA-D5 are distinct but partially overlapping. In addition, ligand binding studies provide evidence for an NT-3-binding/allosteric site on TRKA-D4 (site 2). NT-3 docking on sites 1 and/or 2 partially blocks NGF binding. Functional survival studies showed that sites 1 and 2 regulate TrkA activation. NT-3 docking on both sites 1 and 2 affords full agonism, which can be additive with NGF activation of Trk. However, NT-3 docking solely on site 1 is partially agonistic but noncompetitively antagonizes NGF binding and activation of Trk. This study demonstrates that Trk signaling is more complex than previously thought because it involves several receptor subdomains and hot spots.