PLS3 missense variants affecting the actin-binding domains cause X-linked congenital diaphragmatic hernia and body-wall defects.

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a relatively common and genetically heterogeneous structural birth defect associated with high mortality and morbidity. We describe eight unrelated families with an X-linked condition characterized by diaphragm defects, variable anterior body-wall anomalies, and/or facial dysmorphism. Using linkage analysis and exome or genome sequencing, we found that missense variants in plastin 3 (PLS3), a gene encoding an actin bundling protein, co-segregate with disease in all families. Loss-of-function variants in PLS3 have been previously associated with X-linked osteoporosis (MIM: 300910), so we used in silico protein modeling and a mouse model to address these seemingly disparate clinical phenotypes. The missense variants in individuals with CDH are located within the actin-binding domains of the protein but are not predicted to affect protein structure, whereas the variants in individuals with osteoporosis are predicted to result in loss of function. A mouse knockin model of a variant identified in one of the CDH-affected families, c.1497G>C (p.Trp499Cys), shows partial perinatal lethality and recapitulates the key findings of the human phenotype, including diaphragm and abdominal-wall defects. Both the mouse model and one adult human male with a CDH-associated PLS3 variant were observed to have increased rather than decreased bone mineral density. Together, these clinical and functional data in humans and mice reveal that specific missense variants affecting the actin-binding domains of PLS3 might have a gain-of-function effect and cause a Mendelian congenital disorder.

Rare and de novo variants in 827 congenital diaphragmatic hernia probands implicate LONP1 as candidate risk gene.

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a severe congenital anomaly that is often accompanied by other anomalies. Although the role of genetics in the pathogenesis of CDH has been established, only a small number of disease-associated genes have been identified. To further investigate the genetics of CDH, we analyzed de novo coding variants in 827 proband-parent trios and confirmed an overall significant enrichment of damaging de novo variants, especially in constrained genes. We identified LONP1 (lon peptidase 1, mitochondrial) and ALYREF (Aly/REF export factor) as candidate CDH-associated genes on the basis of de novo variants at a false discovery rate below 0.05. We also performed ultra-rare variant association analyses in 748 affected individuals and 11,220 ancestry-matched population control individuals and identified LONP1 as a risk gene contributing to CDH through both de novo and ultra-rare inherited largely heterozygous variants clustered in the core of the domains and segregating with CDH in affected familial individuals. Approximately 3% of our CDH cohort who are heterozygous with ultra-rare predicted damaging variants in LONP1 have a range of clinical phenotypes, including other anomalies in some individuals and higher mortality and requirement for extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. Mice with lung epithelium-specific deletion of Lonp1 die immediately after birth, most likely because of the observed severe reduction of lung growth, a known contributor to the high mortality in humans. Our findings of both de novo and inherited rare variants in the same gene may have implications in the design and analysis for other genetic studies of congenital anomalies.

Maternal carrier screening with single-gene NIPS provides accurate fetal risk assessments for recessive conditions.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the clinical performance of carrier screening for cystic fibrosis, hemoglobinopathies, and spinal muscular atrophy with reflex single-gene noninvasive prenatal screening (sgNIPS), which does not require paternal carrier screening. METHODS: An unselected sample of 9151 pregnant individuals from the general US pregnant population was screened for carrier status, of which 1669 (18.2%) were identified as heterozygous for one or more pathogenic variants and reflexed to sgNIPS. sgNIPS results were compared with newborn outcomes obtained from parent survey responses or provider reports for a cohort of 201 pregnancies. RESULTS: Overall, 98.7% of pregnant individuals received an informative result (no-call rate = 1.3%), either a negative carrier report or, if identified as heterozygous for a pathogenic variant, a reflex sgNIPS report. In the outcomes cohort, the negative predictive value of sgNIPS was 99.4% (95% CI = 96.0%-99.9%) and average positive predictive value (PPV) of sgNIPS was 48.3% (95% CI = 36.1%-60.1%). Importantly, personalized PPVs accurately reflected the percentage of affected pregnancies in each PPV range, and all pregnancies with a sgNIPS fetal risk of >9 in 10 (90% PPV) were affected. CONCLUSION: Although traditional carrier screening is most effective when used to assess reproductive risk before pregnancy, more than 95% of the time it is pursued during a pregnancy and is complicated by incomplete uptake of paternal carrier screening (<50%) and misattributed paternity (∼10%). Even in an idealized setting, when both partners have carrier screening, the maximum risk for having an affected pregnancy is 1 in 4 (equivalent of a 25% PPV). Carrier screening with sgNIPS during pregnancy is an alternative that does not require a paternal sample and provides accurate fetal risk in a timely manner that can be used for prenatal counseling and pregnancy management.

Education and electronic medical records and genomics network, challenges, and lessons learned from a large-scale clinical trial using polygenic risk scores.

Polygenic risk scores (PRS) have potential to improve health care by identifying individuals that have elevated risk for common complex conditions. Use of PRS in clinical practice, however, requires careful assessment of the needs and capabilities of patients, providers, and health care systems. The electronic Medical Records and Genomics (eMERGE) network is conducting a collaborative study which will return PRS to 25,000 pediatric and adult participants. All participants will receive a risk report, potentially classifying them as high risk (∼2-10% per condition) for 1 or more of 10 conditions based on PRS. The study population is enriched by participants from racial and ethnic minority populations, underserved populations, and populations who experience poorer medical outcomes. All 10 eMERGE clinical sites conducted focus groups, interviews, and/or surveys to understand educational needs among key stakeholders-participants, providers, and/or study staff. Together, these studies highlighted the need for tools that address the perceived benefit/value of PRS, types of education/support needed, accessibility, and PRS-related knowledge and understanding. Based on findings from these preliminary studies, the network harmonized training initiatives and formal/informal educational resources. This paper summarizes eMERGE's collective approach to assessing educational needs and developing educational approaches for primary stakeholders. It discusses challenges encountered and solutions provided.

Performance of single-gene noninvasive prenatal testing for autosomal recessive conditions in a general population setting.

OBJECTIVE: Carrier screening with reflex to single-gene noninvasive prenatal testing (sgNIPT) is an alternative approach for identifying pregnancies at risk for inherited autosomal recessive conditions without the need for a sample from the reproductive partner. This study is the largest clinical validation of this approach in a general population setting. METHODS: The clinical performance of carrier screening with reflex to sgNIPT for cystic fibrosis, spinal muscular atrophy, alpha thalassemias, and beta hemoglobinopathies was assessed by collecting pregnancy outcome data on patients who underwent this testing and comparing the neonatal outcome to the assay-predicted fetal risk. RESULTS: Of 42,067 pregnant individuals who underwent screening, 7538 carriers (17.9%) had reflex sgNIPT, and neonatal or fetal outcomes were obtained for 528 cases, including 25 affected pregnancies. Outcomes demonstrated high concordance with sgNIPT, for example, all pregnancies with 9 in 10 personalized fetal risk results were affected (positive predictive value (PPV) of 100% for the sub-group) and the sgNIPT assay showed a sensitivity of 96.0% (95% CI: 79.65%-99.90%), specificity of 95.2% (95% CI: 92.98%-96.92%), average PPV of 50.0% (95% CI: 35.23%-64.77%), and negative predictive value (NPV) of 99.8% (95% CI: 98.84%-99.99%). The end-to-end performance of carrier screening with reflex to sgNIPT was calculated to have a sensitivity of 92.4% and specificity of 99.9%, which are unaffected by partner carrier screening or misattributed paternity unlike a traditional carrier screening workflow, which has a 35% sensitivity and a maximum of 25% PPV (1 in 4) in a real-life setting. CONCLUSION: This study builds upon earlier findings to confirm that carrier testing with reflex to sgNIPT is highly accurate for general population screening. Given this high accuracy and an NPV of 99.8%, this workflow should be considered as an option for most of the general pregnant population. When the biological partner sample is unavailable, this workflow should be recommended as the first-line approach.

Measuring quality and value in genetic counseling: The current landscape and future directions.

Genetic counselors strive to provide high-quality genetic services. To do so, it is essential to define quality in genetic counseling and identify opportunities for improvement. This Professional Issues article provides an overview of the evaluation of healthcare quality in genetic counseling. The National Society of Genetic Counselors' Research, Quality, and Outcomes Committee partnered with Discern Health, a value-based healthcare policy consulting firm, to develop a care continuum model of genetic counseling. Using the proposed model, currently available quality measures relevant to genetic counseling in the US healthcare system were assessed, allowing for the identification of gaps and priority areas for further development. A total of 560 quality measures were identified that can be applied to various aspects of the care continuum model across a range of clinical specialty areas in genetic counseling, although few measures were specific to genetic counseling or genetic conditions. Areas where quality measures were lacking included: attitudes toward genetic testing, family communication, stigma, and issues of justice, equity, diversity, and inclusion. We discuss these findings and other strategies for an evidence-based approach to quality in genetic counseling. Strategic directions for the genetic counseling profession should include a consolidated approach to research on quality and value of genetic counseling, development of quality metrics and patient-experience measures, and engagement with other improvement activities. These strategies will allow for benchmarking, performance improvement, and future implementation in accountability programs which will strengthen genetic counseling as a profession that provides evidence-based high-quality care to all patients.

Performance of the shared decision-making process scale for use in evaluation of hereditary cancer genetic testing decisions.

This study aimed to evaluate feasibility, acceptability, reliability, and validity of the existing four-item Shared Decision Making (SDM) Process Scale for use in evaluating genetic testing decisions. Patients from a large hereditary cancer genetics practice were invited to participate in a two-part survey after completing pre-test genetic counseling. The online survey included the SDM Process Scale and the SURE scale, a measure of decisional conflict. SDM Process scores were compared to SURE scores to test convergent validity, and respondents were sent a second survey 1 week later to assess retest reliability. The response rate was 65% (n = 259/398) and missing data was low (<1%). SDM scores ranged from zero to four with a mean of 2.3 (SD = 1.1). Retest reliability was good, with intraclass correlation of 0.84, 95% confidence interval (0.79, 0.88). No relationship was found between SDM Process scores and decisional conflict (p = 0.46), likely because 85% of participants reported no decisional conflict. The four-item SDM Process Scale demonstrated feasibility, acceptability, and retest reliability, but not convergent validity with decisional conflict. These findings provide initial evidence for use of this scale to measure patient perceptions of SDM in pre-test counseling for hereditary cancer genetic testing.

Challenges of variant reinterpretation: Opinions of stakeholders and need for guidelines.

PURPOSE: The knowledge used to classify genetic variants is continually evolving, and the classification can change on the basis of newly available data. Although up-to-date variant classification is essential for clinical management, reproductive planning, and identifying at-risk family members, there is no consistent practice across laboratories or clinicians on how or under what circumstances to perform variant reinterpretation. METHODS: We conducted exploratory focus groups (N = 142) and surveys (N = 1753) with stakeholders involved in the process of variant reinterpretation (laboratory directors, clinical geneticists, genetic counselors, nongenetic providers, and patients/parents) to assess opinions on key issues, including initiation of reinterpretation, variants to report, termination of the responsibility to reinterpret, and concerns about consent, cost, and liability. RESULTS: Stakeholders widely agreed that there should be no fixed termination point to the responsibility to reinterpret a previously reported genetic variant. There were significant concerns about liability and lack of agreement about many logistical aspects of variant reinterpretation. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest a need to (1) develop consensus and (2) create transparency and awareness about the roles and responsibilities of parties involved in variant reinterpretation. These data provide a foundation for developing guidelines on variant reinterpretation that can aid in the development of a low-cost, scalable, and accessible approach.

The reckoning: The return of genomic results to 1444 participants across the eMERGE3 Network.

PURPOSE: The goal of Electronic Medical Records and Genomics (eMERGE) Phase III Network was to return actionable sequence variants to 25,084 consenting participants from 10 different health care institutions across the United States. The purpose of this study was to evaluate system-based issues relating to the return of results (RoR) disclosure process for clinical grade research genomic tests to eMERGE3 participants. METHODS: RoR processes were developed and approved by each eMERGE institution's internal review board. Investigators at each eMERGE3 site were surveyed for RoR processes related to the participant's disclosure of pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants and engagement with genetic counseling. Standard statistical analysis was performed. RESULTS: Of the 25,084 eMERGE participants, 1444 had a pathogenic or likely pathogenic variant identified on the eMERGEseq panel of 67 genes and 14 single nucleotide variants. Of these, 1077 (74.6%) participants had results disclosed, with 562 (38.9%) participants provided with variant-specific genetic counseling. Site-specific processes that either offered or required genetic counseling in their RoR process had an effect on whether a participant ultimately engaged with genetic counseling (P = .0052). CONCLUSION: The real-life experience of the multiarm eMERGE3 RoR study for returning actionable genomic results to consented research participants showed the impact of consent, method of disclosure, and genetic counseling on RoR.

Mother and Daughter Perspectives on Genetic Counseling and Testing of Adolescents for Hereditary Breast Cancer Risk.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the risks, benefits, and utility of testing for adult-onset hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) in adolescents and young adults. STUDY DESIGN: We evaluated interest in genetic testing of adolescents for adult-onset HBOC genes through semistructured interviews with mothers and adolescents who had previously participated in breast cancer research or had pursued (mothers) clinical testing for HBOC. RESULTS: The majority of mothers (73%) and daughters (75%) were interested in the daughter having genetic testing and were motivated by the future medical utility and current social utility of relieving anxiety and allowing them to prepare. Mothers and daughters both reported that approximately 3 years in the future was the best time to test the daughter regardless of the current age of the daughter. Overall, both mothers and daughters expressed the importance of the involvement of the mother to provide educational and emotional support but ultimately it was the daughter's decision to test. Balancing the independence and maturity of the daughter while reinforcing communication and support within the dyad was a prominent theme throughout the interviews. CONCLUSIONS: There is interest among some high-risk adolescents and young adults to engage in genetic counseling and undergo testing. Providing pretest and posttest genetic counseling, assessing preferences for parent involvement, and offering psychosocial support may be important if genetic testing for HBOC is offered to adolescents and young adults before age 25 years.

Information is power: The experiences, attitudes and needs of individuals who chose to have prenatal genomic sequencing for fetal anomalies.

OBJECTIVE: This study sought to evaluate the experiences of individuals who chose to participate in a study and receive prenatal genomic sequencing (pGS) for fetuses with congenital structural anomalies. METHOD: Individuals who received research results of prenatal sequencing were invited to participate in semi-structured interviews about their experiences. A constructivist grounded theory approach was used to code and analyze interviews. RESULTS: Thirty-three participants from 27 pregnancies were interviewed. Participants were motivated to enroll in the study to find out more about their fetus' condition and prepare for the future. The waiting period was a time of significant anxiety for participants. Most participants felt relief and closure upon receiving results, regardless of the category of result, and had a clear understanding of the implications of the results. CONCLUSION: Participants' experiences with pGS were often intertwined with the experience of having a fetus with an abnormality. Participants were satisfied with the decision to participate in research and the support they received from the healthcare team, although waiting for results was associated with anxiety. The healthcare team plays an integral role in setting expectations and validating feelings of anxiety, fear and uncertainty.

Do research participants share genomic screening results with family members?

The public health impact of genomic screening can be enhanced by cascade testing. However, cascade testing depends on communication of results to family members. While the barriers and facilitators of family communication have been researched following clinical genetic testing, the factors impacting the dissemination of genomic screening results are unknown. Using the pragmatic Electronic Medical Records and Genomics Network-3 (eMERGE-3) study, we explored the reported sharing practices of participants who underwent genomic screening across the United States. Six eMERGE-3 sites returned genomic screening results for mostly dominant medically actionable disorders and surveyed adult participants regarding communication of results with first-degree relatives. Across the sites, 279 participants completed a 1-month and/or 6-month post-results survey. By 6 months, only 34% of the 156 respondents shared their results with all first-degree relatives and 4% did not share with any. Over a third (39%) first-degree relatives were not notified of the results. Half (53%) of participants who received their results from a genetics provider shared them with all first-degree relatives compared with 11% of participants who received their results from a non-genetics provider. The most frequent reasons for sharing were a feeling of obligation (72%) and that the information could help family members make medical decisions (72%). The most common reasons indicated for not sharing were that the family members were too young (38%), or they were not in contact (25%) or not close to them (25%). These data indicate that the professional returning the results may impact sharing patterns, suggesting that there is a need to continue to educate healthcare providers regarding approaches to facilitate sharing of genetic results within families. Finally, these data suggest that interventions to increase sharing may be universally effective regardless of the origin of the genetic result.

Returning negative results from large-scale genomic screening: Experiences from the eMERGE III network.

Population-based genomic screening has the potential to improve health outcomes by identifying genetic causes of disease before they occur. While much attention has been paid to supporting the needs of the small percentage of patients who will receive a life-altering positive genomic screening result that requires medical attention, little attention has been given to the communication of negative screening results. As there are currently no best practices for returning negative genomic screening results, we drew on experiences across the electronic medical records and genomics (eMERGE) III Network to highlight the diversity of reporting methods employed, challenges encountered in reporting negative test results, and "lessons learned" across institutions. A 60-item survey that consisted of both multiple choice and open-ended questions was created to gather data across institutions. Even though institutions independently developed procedures for reporting negative results, and had very different study populations, we identified several similarities of approach, including but not limited to: returning results by mail, placing results in the electronic health record via an automated process, reporting results to participants' primary care provider, and providing genetic counseling to interested patients at no cost. Differences in procedures for reporting negative results included: differences in terminology used to describe negative results, definitions of negative results, guidance regarding the meaning of negative results for participants and their family members, and recommendations for clinical follow up. Our findings highlight emerging practices for reporting negative genomic screening results and highlight the need to create patient education and clinical support tools for reporting negative screening results.

COVID contingencies: Early epicenter experiences of different genetics clinics at a New York City institution inform emergency adaptation strategies.

The unique situational challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic have demanded creative modifications to the delivery of genetic services. Institutions across the country have adapted workflows to continue to provide quality care while minimizing the need for physical visits. As the first epicenter of the pandemic in the country, New York City healthcare workers and residents had to make rapid, unprecedented changes to their way of life. This article describes the workflow adaptations of genetic counselors across various clinical settings at New York Presbyterian/Columbia University Irving Medical Center, the largest provider of genetics care in New York City, during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. The authors observe how the adaptations impacted clinical care and the genetic counselors. Our lived experience and account can provide guidance for others during the current and future pandemics.

GeneLiFT: A novel test to facilitate rapid screening of genetic literacy in a diverse population undergoing genetic testing.

With the broader introduction of genomic medicine in research and clinical care, an increasing number of persons are offered genetic testing. Many factors, including genetic literacy, may impact the utilization of genetic results by patients and their families. We developed a rapid, self-administered measure of genetic literacy, called Genetic Literacy Fast Test (GeneLiFT). We next evaluated the association of GeneLiFT scores with the comprehension of limitations of genomic medicine in participants undergoing genetic testing in the NIH-sponsored eMERGE III study at Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York. All participants underwent genetic screening for variants in 74 actionable genes associated with adult-onset disorders. A diverse cohort of 724 participants completed the survey (60% women, 45% less than 40 years old, and 53% self-reported White non-Hispanic ancestry). The GeneLiFT was validated using known group differences based on education, health literacy, and numeracy, and with questions assessing genetic knowledge. GeneLiFT identified multiple standard genetics terms, that is, jargon, not recognized by more than 50% of participants (including actionability and pathogenicity). Low genetic literacy, identified in 210 participants (29%), was significantly associated with poor understanding of the limitations of genetic testing (p-values < 10-9 ). This association was independent of education, health literacy, and numeracy levels, highlighting the importance of directly measuring genetic literacy. Low genetic literacy was also associated with low satisfaction with the informed consent process. GeneLiFT is a practical tool for rapid assessment of genetic literacy in large studies or clinical care. GeneLiFT will allow future research to efficiently assess the role of genetic literacy on the clinical impact of genetic testing.

De novo variants in congenital diaphragmatic hernia identify MYRF as a new syndrome and reveal genetic overlaps with other developmental disorders.

Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is a severe birth defect that is often accompanied by other congenital anomalies. Previous exome sequencing studies for CDH have supported a role of de novo damaging variants but did not identify any recurrently mutated genes. To investigate further the genetics of CDH, we analyzed de novo coding variants in 362 proband-parent trios including 271 new trios reported in this study. We identified four unrelated individuals with damaging de novo variants in MYRF (P = 5.3x10(-8)), including one likely gene-disrupting (LGD) and three deleterious missense (D-mis) variants. Eight additional individuals with de novo LGD or missense variants were identified from our other genetic studies or from the literature. Common phenotypes of MYRF de novo variant carriers include CDH, congenital heart disease and genitourinary abnormalities, suggesting that it represents a novel syndrome. MYRF is a membrane associated transcriptional factor highly expressed in developing diaphragm and is depleted of LGD variants in the general population. All de novo missense variants aggregated in two functional protein domains. Analyzing the transcriptome of patient-derived diaphragm fibroblast cells suggest that disease associated variants abolish the transcription factor activity. Furthermore, we showed that the remaining genes with damaging variants in CDH significantly overlap with genes implicated in other developmental disorders. Gene expression patterns and patient phenotypes support pleiotropic effects of damaging variants in these genes on CDH and other developmental disorders. Finally, functional enrichment analysis implicates the disruption of regulation of gene expression, kinase activities, intra-cellular signaling, and cytoskeleton organization as pathogenic mechanisms in CDH.

Ethical conflicts in translational genetic research: lessons learned from the eMERGE-III experience.

PURPOSE: The Electronic Medical Records and Genomics (eMERGE) Consortium integrated biorepository-based research with electronic health records (EHR) to return results from large-scale genetic tests to participants and uploaded those data into the EHR. This article explores the ethical issues investigators encountered in that process. METHODS: We conducted in-depth, semistructured interviews with study personnel of the eMERGE-III Consortium sites that returned results. RESULTS: We discuss major ethical issues that arose while attempting to return research results from the eMERGE Consortium to individual participants. These included difficulties recontacting those participants who had not explicitly consented to such and disclosing results to many participants with insufficient infrastructure and staff. Investigators reported being driven by a supererogatory clinical impulse. CONCLUSION: All these issues ultimately derive from ethical conflicts inherent to translational work being done at the interface of research and clinical care. A critical rethinking of this divide is important, but infrastructural support for such work is necessary for an ethically sound rollout of large-scale genetic testing.

Likely damaging de novo variants in congenital diaphragmatic hernia patients are associated with worse clinical outcomes.

PURPOSE: Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) is associated with significant mortality and long-term morbidity in some but not all individuals. We hypothesize monogenic factors that cause CDH are likely to have pleiotropic effects and be associated with worse clinical outcomes. METHODS: We enrolled and prospectively followed 647 newborns with CDH and performed genomic sequencing on 462 trios to identify de novo variants. We grouped cases into those with and without likely damaging (LD) variants and systematically assessed CDH clinical outcomes between the genetic groups. RESULTS: Complex cases with additional congenital anomalies had higher mortality than isolated cases (P = 8 × 10-6). Isolated cases with LD variants had similar mortality to complex cases and much higher mortality than isolated cases without LD (P = 3 × 10-3). The trend was similar with pulmonary hypertension at 1 month. Cases with LD variants had an estimated 12-17 points lower scores on neurodevelopmental assessments at 2 years compared with cases without LD variants, and this difference is similar in isolated and complex cases. CONCLUSION: We found that the LD genetic variants are associated with higher mortality, worse pulmonary hypertension, and worse neurodevelopment outcomes compared with non-LD variants. Our results have important implications for prognosis, potential intervention and long-term follow up for children with CDH.

Participant choices for return of genomic results in the eMERGE Network.

PURPOSE: Secondary findings are typically offered in an all or none fashion when sequencing is used for clinical purposes. This study aims to describe the process of offering categorical and granular choices for results in a large research consortium. METHODS: Within the third phase of the electronic MEdical Records and GEnomics (eMERGE) Network, several sites implemented studies that allowed participants to choose the type of results they wanted to receive from a multigene sequencing panel. Sites were surveyed to capture the details of the implementation protocols and results of these choices. RESULTS: Across the ten eMERGE sites, 4664 participants including adolescents and adults were offered some type of choice. Categories of choices offered and methods for selecting categories varied. Most participants (94.5%) chose to learn all genetic results, while 5.5% chose subsets of results. Several sites allowed participants to change their choices at various time points, and 0.5% of participants made changes. CONCLUSION: Offering choices that include learning some results is important and should be a dynamic process to allow for changes in scientific knowledge, participant age group, and individual preference.

A qualitative study of Latinx parents' experiences of clinical exome sequencing.

Clinical exome sequencing (CES) is an established method for genetic diagnosis and is used widely in clinical practice. Studies of the parental experience of CES, which inform guidelines for best practices for genetic counseling, have been predominately comprised of White, non-Latinx participants. The aim of this study was to explore the parental experiences of CES in a Latinx community and to understand how their experiences are influenced by culture and language. We conducted semi-structured interviews in English and Spanish with 38 Latinx parents of children who had CES. Some of the themes that emerged were common to those previously identified, including a sense of obligation to pursue testing and a mixed emotional response to their child's results. Parents who had lower education level and/or received care from a provider who did not share their language had more confusion about their child's CES results and greater dissatisfaction with care compared with parents who had higher education level and/or received care from a provider who spoke their language. We also found evidence of hampered shared decision making and/or disempowered patient decision making regarding CES testing. Our data suggest unique needs for Latinx families having CES, particularly those who are non-English speaking when an interpreter is used. Our data support the value in continuing to take steps to improve culturally competent care by improving interpretation services and recruiting and training a genetic workforce that is ethnically, linguistically, and culturally diverse.