Biodegradation of sulfoxaflor and photolysis of sulfoxaflor by ultraviolet radiation.

Sulfoxaflor (SUL, [N-[methyloxido[1-[6-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridinyl] ethyl]-λ4-sulfanylidene] cyanamide]) is a widely used systemic insecticide, and its residue has frequently been detected in the environment, posing a potential threat to the environment. In this study, Pseudaminobacter salicylatoxidans CGMCC 1.17248 rapidly converted SUL into X11719474 via a hydration pathway mediated by two nitrile hydratases (AnhA and AnhB). Extensive (96.4%) degradation of 0.83 mmol/L SUL was achieved by P. salicylatoxidans CGMCC 1.17248 resting cells within 30 min (half-life of SUL 6.4 min). Cell immobilization by entrapment into calcium alginate remediated 82.8% of the SUL in 90 min, and almost no SUL was observed in surface water after incubation for 3 h. P. salicylatoxidans NHases AnhA and AnhB both hydrolyzed SUL to X11719474, although AnhA exhibited much better catalytic performance. The genome sequence of P. salicylatoxidans CGMCC 1.17248 revealed that this strain could efficiently eliminate nitrile-containing insecticides and adapt to harsh environments. We firstly found that UV irradiation transforms SUL to the derivatives X11719474 and X11721061, and the potential reaction pathways were proposed. These results further deepen our understanding of the mechanisms of SUL degradation as well as the environmental fate of SUL.

Halorubrum rutilum sp. nov. isolated from a marine solar saltern.

A halophilic archaeal strain, YJ-18-S1(T), was isolated from Yangjiang marine solar saltern, Guangxi Province, China. Cells were pleomorphic, stained Gram-negative and formed red-pigmented colonies on agar plates. Strain YJ-18-S1(T) was able to grow at 20-55 °C (optimum 37 °C), at 0.9-4.8 M NaCl (optimum 2.6 M NaCl), at 0.005-1.0 M MgCl2 (optimum 0.3 MgCl2) and at pH 5.5-8.5 (optimum pH 7.0). The cells were lysed in distilled water, and the minimal NaCl concentration to prevent cell lysis was found to be 5 % (w/v). The major polar lipids of the strain were phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol phosphate methyl ester, phosphatidylglycerol sulfate and sulfated mannosyl glucosyl diether. The 16S rRNA gene and rpoB' gene of strain YJ-18-S1(T) were phylogenetically related to the corresponding genes of Halorubrum members (94.3-98.0 and 86.7-96.1 % similarities, respectively). The DNA G+C content of strain YJ-18-S1(T) was 66.2 mol%. The phenotypic, chemotaxonomic and phylogenetic properties suggested that strain YJ-18-S1(T) (=CGMCC 1.12554(T) = JCM 30030(T)) represents a new species of Halorubrum, for which the name Halorubrum rutilum sp. nov. is proposed.

Haloarchaeobius amylolyticus sp. nov., isolated from a marine solar saltern.

Halophilic archaeal strain XD48(T) was isolated from a Chinese marine solar saltern. Cells were pleomorphic, stained Gram-negative and formed red-pigmented colonies on solid media. Strain XD48(T) was found to be able to grow at 25-50 °C (optimum 37 °C), at 0.9-4.8 M NaCl (optimum 3.1 M NaCl), at 0-1.0 M MgCl2 (optimum 0.3 MgCl2) and at pH 5.0-9.5 (optimum pH 6.5). The cells lysed in distilled water, and the minimal NaCl concentration to prevent cell lysis was found to be 5% (w/v). The major polar lipids of the strain were phosphatidic acid (PA), phosphatidylglycerol (PG), phosphatidylglycerol phosphate methyl ester (PGP-Me), phosphatidylglycerol sulfate (PGS), sulfated galactosyl mannosyl glucosyl diether (S-TGD-1), sulfated mannosyl glucosyl diether (S-DGD-1) and six unknown glycolipids. The 16S rRNA gene and rpoB' gene of strain XD48(T) were phylogenetically related to the corresponding genes of Haloarchaeobius members (92.4-93.9 and 89.6-90.5% similarities, respectively). The DNA G + C content of strain XD48(T) was determined to be 65.3 mol%. The phenotypic, chemotaxonomic and phylogenetic properties suggested that strain XD48(T) (=CGMCC 1.12230(T) = JCM 18642(T)) represents a new species of Haloarchaeobius, for which the name Haloarchaeobius amylolyticus sp. nov. is proposed.

Haloarchaeobius salinus sp. nov., isolated from an inland salt lake, and emended description of the genus Haloarchaeobius.

The halophilic archaeal strain, YC82(T), was isolated from Yuncheng salt lake in Shanxi, PR China. Cells from strain YC82(T) were Gram-stain negative, pleomorphic rods, which lysed in distilled water and formed light-red colonies on solid media. Strain YC82(T) grew at 25-50 °C (optimum 37 °C), in 1.4-4.8 M NaCl (optimum 2.0 M), in 0-1.0 M MgCl2 (optimum 0.05 M) and at pH 6.0-9.5 (optimum pH 7.5). The major polar lipids of strain YC82(T) were phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol phosphate methyl ester, phosphatidylglycerol sulfate and three glycolipids, which were chromatographically identical to those of Haloarchaeobius iranensis IBRC-M 10013(T) and Haloarchaeobius litoreus CGMCC 1.10390(T). 16S rRNA gene analysis revealed that strain YC82(T) had two dissimilar 16S rRNA genes and that it was phylogenetically related to Hab. iranensis IBRC-M 10013(T) (94.3-99.0 % nucleotide identity) and Hab. litoreus CGMCC 1.10390(T) (94.1-98.8 % nucleotide identity). The rpoB' gene similarities between strain YC82(T) and Hab. iranensis IBRC-M 10013(T) and Hab. litoreus CGMCC 1.10390(T) were 96.5 % and 95.7 %, respectively. The DNA G+C content of strain YC82(T) was 63.7 mol%. Strain YC82(T) showed low DNA-DNA relatedness with Hab. iranensis IBRC-M 10013(T) and Hab. litoreus CGMCC 1.10390(T). The phenotypic, chemotaxonomic and phylogenetic properties of strain YC82(T) ( = CGMCC 1.12232(T) = JCM 18644(T)) suggest that it represents a novel species of the genus Haloarchaeobius, for which the name Haloarchaeobius salinus sp. nov. is proposed. An emended description of the genus Haloarchaeobius is also presented.

Halorussus amylolyticus sp. nov., isolated from an inland salt lake.

A halophilic archaeal strain, YC93T, was isolated from Yuncheng salt lake in Shanxi Province, China. Cells were pleomorphic rods, stained Gram-negative and formed light-red-pigmented colonies on agar plates. Strain YC93T was able to grow at 25­50 °C (optimum 37 °C), with 1.4­4.8 M NaCl (optimum 2.0 M), with 0­1.0 M MgCl2 (optimum 0.05 M) and at pH 6.0­9.5 (optimum pH 7.0). Cells lysed in distilled water and the minimal NaCl concentration to prevent cell lysis was 8 % (w/v). 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis revealed that strain YC93T had two dissimilar 16S rRNA genes both of which were phylogenetically related to those of the two recognized members of the genus Halorussus (93.0­95.3 % similarity). The rpoB' gene of strain YC93T was phylogenetically related to the corresponding gene of Halorussus rarus TBN4T (91.3 % similarity) and Halorussus ruber YC25T (90.5 %). The major polar lipids were phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol phosphate methyl ester, phosphatidylglycerol sulfate and five glycolipids chromatographically identical to those of Halorussus rarus CGMCC 1.10122T. The DNA G+C content of strain YC93T was 64.6 mol%. The phenotypic, chemotaxonomic and phylogenetic properties suggested that strain YC93T represents a novel species of the genus Halorussus, for which the name Halorussus amylolyticus sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is YC93T ( = CGMCC 1.12126T = JCM 18367T).

Halosimplex litoreum sp. nov., isolated from a marine solar saltern.

A halophilic archaeal strain, YGH94(T), was isolated from the Yinggehai marine solar saltern near the Shanya city of Hainan Province, China. Cells of the strain were observed to be short rods, stain Gram-negative and to form red-pigmented colonies on solid media. Strain YGH94(T) was found to grow at 25-50 °C (optimum 40 °C), at 0.9-4.8 M NaCl (optimum 3.1 M), at 0-1.0 M MgCl2 (optimum 0.05 M) and at pH 5.0-9.0 (optimum pH 7.5). The cells were found to lyse in distilled water and the minimal NaCl concentration to prevent cell-lysis was determined to be 5 % (w/v). The major polar lipids were identified as phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol phosphate methyl ester and four major glycolipids (disulfated mannosyl glucosyl diether, sulfated mannosyl glucosyl diether and two unidentified glycolipids chromatographically identical to glycolipids in Halosimplex carlsbadense JCM 11222(T)). Strain YGH94(T) was found to possess two heterogeneous 16S rRNA genes (rrnA and rrnB) and both are related to those of Hsx. carlsbadense JCM 11222(T) (92.7-98.6 % similarities), Halosimplex pelagicum R2(T) (94.6-99.2 % similarities) and Halosimplex rubrum R27(T) (92.9-98.8 % similarities). The rpoB' gene similarity between strain YGH94(T) and Hsx. carlsbadense JCM 11222(T), Hsx. pelagicum R2(T) and Hsx. rubrum R27(T) are 95.4, 94.9 and 95.1 %, respectively. The DNA G+C content of strain YGH94(T) was determined to be 64.0 mol%. Strain YGH94(T) showed low DNA-DNA relatedness (35-39 %) with the current three members of the genus Halosimplex. The phenotypic, chemotaxonomic and phylogenetic properties suggest that strain YGH94(T) (=CGMCC 1.12235(T) = JCM 18647(T)) represents a new species of the genus Halosimplex, for which the name Halosimplex litoreum sp. nov. is proposed.

Halorientalis brevis sp. nov., Isolated from an Inland Salt Lake of China.

Halophilic archaeal strain YC89(T) was isolated from Yuncheng salt lake in Shanxi, China. Cells from strain YC89(T) were short rods, lysed in distilled water, stained Gram-negative and formed red-pigmented colonies on agar plate. Strain YC89(T) was able to grow at 25-50°C (optimum 37°C), at 1.4-4.8 M NaCl (optimum 2.6-3.1 M), at 0-1.0 M MgCl2 (optimum 0.3 M) and at pH 6.0-9.5 (optimum pH 7.5). The major polar lipids are phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol phosphate methyl ester, sulfated mannosyl glucosyl diether and two unknown glycolipids. 16S rRNA gene analysis revealed that strain YC89(T) was phylogenetically related to Halorientalis persicus D108(T) (95.6% nucleotide identity) and H. regularis TNN28(T) (95.3% nucleotide identity). The rpoB' gene similarities between strain YC89(T) and H. persicus IBRC-M 10043(T) and H. regularis TNN28(T) were 88.1 and 88.0%, respectively. The DNA G+C content of strain YC89(T) was determined to be 61.3 mol%. The phenotypic, chemotaxonomic and phylogenetic properties suggested that strain YC89(T) (=CGMCC 1.12125(T) = JCM 18366(T)) represents a new species of Halorientalis, for which the name H. brevis sp. nov. is proposed.

Asp-tRNAAsn/Glu-tRNAGln amidotransferase A subunit-like amidase mediates the degradation of insecticide flonicamid by Variovorax boronicumulans CGMCC 4969.

The main metabolic product of the pyridinecarboxamide insecticide flonicamid, N-(4-trifluoromethylnicotinyl)glycinamide (TFNG-AM), has been shown to have very high mobility in soil, leading to its accumulation in the environment. Catabolic pathways of flonicamid have been widely reported, but few studies have focused on the metabolism of TFNG-AM. Here, the rapid transformation of TFNG-AM and production of the corresponding acid product N-(4-trifluoromethylnicotinoyl) glycine (TFNG) by the plant growth-promoting bacterium Variovorax boronicumulans CGMCC 4969 were investigated. With TFNG-AM at an initial concentration of 0.86 mmol/L, 90.70 % was transformed by V. boronicumulans CGMCC 4969 resting cells within 20 d, with a degradation half-life of 4.82 d. A novel amidase that potentially mediated this transformation process, called AmiD, was identified by bioinformatic analyses. The gene encoding amiD was cloned and expressed recombinantly in Escherichia coli, and the enzyme AmiD was characterized. Key amino acid residue Val154, which is associated with the catalytic activity and substrate specificity of signature family amidases, was identified for the first time by homology modeling, structural alignment, and site-directed mutagenesis analyses. When compared to wild-type recombinant AmiD, the mutant AmiD V154G demonstrated a 3.08-fold increase in activity toward TFNG-AM. The activity of AmiD V154G was greatly increased toward aromatic L-phenylalanine amides, heterocyclic TFNG-AM and IAM, and aliphatic asparagine, whereas it was dramatically lowered toward benzamide, phenylacetamide, nicotinamide, acetamide, acrylamide, and hexanamid. Quantitative PCR analysis revealed that AmiD may be a substrate-inducible enzyme in V. boronicumulans CGMCC 4969. The mechanism of transcriptional regulation of AmiD by a member of the AraC family of regulators encoded upstream of the amiD gene was preliminarily investigated. This study deepens our understanding of the mechanisms of metabolism of toxic amides in the environment, providing new ideas for microbial bioremediation.