Why ketamine.

We present the rationale for testing ketamine as an add-on therapy for treating benzodiazepine refractory (established) status epilepticus. In animal studies, ketamine terminates benzodiazepine refractory status epilepticus by interfering with the pathophysiological mechanisms and is a neuroprotectant. Ketamine does not suppress respiration when used for sedation and anesthesia. A Series of reports suggest that ketamine can help terminate refractory and super refractory status epilepticus. We propose to use 1 or 3 mg/Kg ketamine intravenously based on animal-to-human conversion and pharmacokinetic studies. This paper was presented at the 8th London-Innsbruck Colloquium on Status Epilepticus and Acute Seizures held in September 2022.

Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation versus endotracheal intubation in treatment of COVID-19 patients requiring ventilatory support.

IMPORTANCE: Initial guidelines recommended prompt endotracheal intubation rather than non-invasive ventilation (NIV) for COVID-19 patients requiring ventilator support. There is insufficient data comparing the impact of intubation versus NIV on patient-centered outcomes of these patients. OBJECTIVE: To compare all-cause 30-day mortality for hospitalized COVID-19 patients with respiratory failure who underwent intubation first, intubation after NIV, or NIV only. DESIGN: Retrospective study of patients admitted in March and April of 2020. SETTING: A teaching hospital in Brooklyn, New York City. PARTICIPANTS: Adult COVID-19 confirmed patients who required ventilator support (non-invasive ventilation and/or endotracheal intubation) at discretion of treating physician, were included. EXPOSURES: Patients were categorized into three exposure groups: intubation-first, intubation after NIV, or NIV-only. PRIMARY OUTCOME: 30-day all-cause mortality, a predetermined outcome measured by multivariable logistic regression. Data are presented with medians and interquartile ranges, or percentages with 95% confidence intervals, for continuous and categorical variables, respectively. Covariates for the model were age, sex, qSOFA score ≥ 2, presenting oxygen saturation, vasopressor use, and greater than three comorbidities. A secondary multivariable model compared mortality of all patients that received NIV (intubation after NIV and NIV-only) with the intubation-first group. RESULTS: A total of 222 were enrolled. Overall mortality was 77.5% (95%CI, 72-83%). Mortality for intubation-first group was 82% (95%CI, 73-89%; 75/91), for Intubation after NIV was 84% (95%CI, 70-92%; 37/44), and for NIV-only was 69% (95%CI, 59-78%; 60/87). In multivariable analysis, NIV-only was associated with decreased all-cause mortality (odds ratio [OR]: 0.30, 95%CI, 0.13-0.69). No difference in mortality was observed between intubation-first and intubation after NIV. Secondary analysis found all patients who received NIV to have lower mortality than patients who were intubated only (OR: 0.44, 95%CI, 0.21-0.95). CONCLUSIONS & RELEVANCE: Utilization of NIV as the initial intervention in COVID-19 patients requiring ventilatory support is associated with significant survival benefit. For patients intubated after NIV, the mortality rate is not worse than those who undergo intubation as their initial intervention.

Intravenous Magnesium Sulfate to Treat Acute Headaches in the Emergency Department: A Systematic Review.

INTRODUCTION: Non-traumatic headaches comprise up to 4% of all emergency department (ED) visits. Current practice is moving toward multimodal analgesia regimens that limit narcotic use. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this systematic review is to address the following research question: In patients with non-traumatic headaches (Population), does administration of intravenous magnesium sulfate (Intervention) compared to placebo, corticosteroids, dopamine antagonists, ergot alkaloids, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), triptans, or usual care result in better pain control, lower rate of recurrence at 24 hours, lower requirements for rescue analgesia, and less adverse medication effects (Outcomes)? METHODS: Scholarly databases and relevant bibliographies were searched, as were clinical trial registries and relevant conference proceedings to limit publication bias. Studies were not limited by date, language, or publication status. Inclusion criteria were: (1) randomized clinical trial (RCT), (2) patients age ≥18 years, (3) non-traumatic headache, (4) patients treated in ED or an outpatient acute care treatment center, and (5) magnesium sulfate administered intravenously (IV). Eligible comparison groups included: placebo, conventional therapy, dopamine antagonist, NSAID, corticosteroid, ergot alkaloid, or triptans. RESULTS: Out of 4018 identified references, 7 RCTs (545 participants) that treated migraine headaches (n = 6) and benign non-traumatic headaches (n = 1) met inclusion criteria. Pain intensity was improved with magnesium sulfate vs comparators at 60-120 minutes, but not at earlier time points. Result for the endpoint of pain reduction by 50% were conflicting as 3 studies reported that headache was improved, unchanged, and less with magnesium sulfate. Complete pain relief was improved with magnesium sulfate in 1 study, and in the migraine with aura (MA) subgroup in another. The need for rescue analgesia at any point was improved with magnesium sulfate in 1 study, and in the MA subgroup in another. Twenty-four-hour headache recurrence was improved with magnesium sulfate in 1 study, but unchanged in a second. The intended meta-analysis was not performed due to the clinical heterogeneity among studies. CONCLUSION: While we cannot draw a firm conclusion on the efficacy or benefit of intravenous magnesium sulfate in the treatment of acute non-traumatic headaches, the existing evidence indicates potential benefits in pain control beyond 1 hour, aura duration, and need for rescue analgesia.

A systematic review of foam dressings for partial thickness burns.

BACKGROUND: Partial thickness burns are the most common form of thermal burns. Traditionally, dressing for these burns is simple gauze with silver sulfadiazine (SSD) changed on a daily basis. Foam dressings have been proposed to offer the advantage of requiring less frequent dressing change and better absorption of exudates. OBJECTIVE: To compare the impact of silver-containing foam dressing to traditional SSD with gauze dressing on wound healing of partial thickness burns. METHODS: We performed a systematic literature search using PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, Web of Science, Cochrane Library database and Google Scholar for trials comparing traditional SSD dressings to that of silver-containing foam dressing on wound healing in partial thickness burns <25% of the body surface area. We excluded studies that enrolled burns involving head, face, and genitals; burns older than or equal to 36 h, non-thermal burns, and immunocompromised patients. Quality of trials was assessed using the GRADE criteria. The main outcome, complete wound healing, is reported as percentages of wound with complete epithelialization after the follow up period. Relative risks of complete healing are also reported with respective 95% CI. Time to healing and pain score before, during, and after dressing change at each follow up visit are compared between the groups (means with standard deviation or medians with quartiles). RESULTS: We identified a total of 877 references, of which three randomized controlled trials (2 combined pediatric and adult trials and 1 adult trial) with a total of 346 patients met our inclusion criteria. All three trials compared silver-containing foam dressing to SSD and gauze on partial thickness burns. Moderate quality evidence indicated no significant difference in wound re-epithelialization between the groups across all three trials as confidence intervals for the relative risks all crossed 1. Although pain scores favored foam dressing at the first dressing change (7 days), there was no significant difference between the groups at the end of the treatment period at 28 days. Time to wound healing was also similar across the three trials with no statistical difference. Infection rates favored the foam-dressing group, but data were inconsistent. CONCLUSION: Moderate quality evidence indicates that there is no significant difference in wound healing between silver-containing foam dressing and SSD dressing. However, foam has the added benefit of reduced pain during the early treatment phase and potentially decreased infection rates.

Clinical value of triage lactate in risk stratifying trauma patients using interval likelihood ratios.

Emergency physicians face the challenge of rapidly identifying high-risk trauma patients. Lactate (LAC) is widely used as a surrogate of tissue hypoperfusion. However, clinically important values for LAC as a predictor of mortality are not well defined. OBJECTIVES: 1. To assess the value of triage LAC in predicting mortality after trauma. 2. To compute interval likelihood ratios (LR) for LAC. METHODS: Retrospective chart review of trauma patients with a significant injury mechanism that warranted labs at an urban trauma center. OUTCOME: In-hospital mortality. Data are presented as median and quartiles or percentages with 95% confidence intervals. Groups (lived vs. died) were compared with Man-Whitney-U or Fisher's-exact test. Multivariate analysis was used to measure the association of the independent variables and mortality. The interval likelihood ratios were calculated for all LAC observed values. RESULTS: 10,575 patients; median age: 38 [25-57]; 69% male; 76% blunt; 1.1% [n=119] mortality. LAC was statistically different between groups in univariate (2.3 [1.6,3.0] vs 2.8 [1.6,4.8], p=0.008) and multivariate analyses (odds ratio: 1.14 [1.08-1.21], p=0.0001). Interval ratios for LR- ranged from 0.6-1.0. Increasing LAC increased LR+. However, LR+ for LAC reached 5 with LAC>9mmol/L and passed 10 (moderate and conclusive increase in disease probability, respectively) with LAC>18mmol/L. CONCLUSIONS: In a cohort of trauma patients with a wide spectrum of characteristics triage LAC was statistically able to identify patients at high risk of mortality. However, clinically meaningful contribution to decision-making occurred only at LAC>9. LAC was not useful at excluding those with a low risk of mortality.

The prognostic role of non-critical lactate levels for in-hospital survival time among ED patients with sepsis.

OBJECTIVE: This study describes emergency department (ED) sepsis patients with non-critical serum venous lactate (LAC) levels (LAC <4.0 mmol/L) who suffered in-hospital mortality and examines LAC in relation to survival times. METHODS: An ED based retrospective cohort study accrued September 2010 to August 2014. Inclusion criteria were ED admission, LAC sampling, >2 systemic inflammatory response syndrome criteria with an infectious source (sepsis), and in-hospital mortality. Kaplan-Meier curves were used for survival estimates. An a priori sub-group analysis for patients with repeat LAC within 6 hours of initial sampling was undertaken. The primary outcome was time to in-hospital death evaluated using rank-sum tests and regression models. RESULTS: One hundred ninety-seven patients met inclusion criteria. Pulmonary infections were the most common (44%) and median LAC was 1.9 mmol/L (1.5, 2.5). Thirteen patients (7%) died within 24 hours and 79% by ≤28 days. Median survival was 11 days (95% CI, 8.0-13). Sixty-two patients had repeat LAC sampling with 14 (23%) and 48 (77%) having decreasing increasing levels, respectively. No significant differences were observed in treatment requirements between the LAC subgroups. Among patients with decreasing LAC, median survival was 24 days (95% CI, 5-32). For patients with increasing LAC median survival was significantly shorter (7 days; 95% CI, 4-11, P = .04). Patients with increasing LAC had a non-significant trend toward reduced survival (HR = 1.6 95% CI, 0.90-3.0, P = .10). CONCLUSIONS: In septic ED patients experiencing in-hospital death, non-critical serum venous lactate may be utilized as a risk-stratifying tool for early mortality, while increasing LAC levels may identify those in danger of more rapid deterioration.

Comparison of oral oxycodone and naproxen in soft tissue injury pain control: a double-blind randomized clinical trial.

OBJECTIVES: This randomized clinical trial compares the efficacy and safety of oral oxycodone (an oral opioid) with naproxen (a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug) in acute pain control in patients with soft tissue injury. It also evaluates the need for additional doses of analgesics in the first 24 hours of discharge from emergency department (ED). METHODS: Adult (>18 years old) patients with soft tissue injuries were enrolled in a teaching urban ED. Subjects were randomly allocated to receive a single dose of oral oxycodone (5 mg) or oral naproxen (250 mg). Pain scores and drugs' adverse effects were assessed before, 30 minutes, and 60 minutes after medication. OUTCOME: efficacy in pain control (reduction in pain scale >2 points) and safety (rate of side effects). The need for additional pain medication after discharge was assessed by follow-up phone call 24 hours after discharge. RESULTS: A total of 150 patients were enrolled. Pain scores were similar in oxycodone vs naproxen groups before (6.21 ± 0.9 in vs 6.0 ± 1.0), 30 minutes (4.5 ± 1.4 vs 4.4 ± 1.2), and 60 minutes (2.5 ± 1.3 in vs 2.6 ± 1.3) after medication, respectively. Twelve (16.0%) patients in oral oxycodone group and 5 (6.6%) patients in naproxen group needed more analgesics in first 24 hours after ED discharge. Adverse effects were more common in oxycodone group (statistically significant difference). The most common adverse effects in oxycodone group were nausea, (13.3%); vomiting, (8.0%); dizziness, (5.3%); drowsiness, 3 (4.0%); and pruritis, (2.7%). CONCLUSION: Oral oxycodone is as effective as naproxen in soft tissue injury pain control but has a less favorable safety profile.

Diagnostic accuracy of microEEG: a miniature, wireless EEG device.

Measuring the diagnostic accuracy (DA) of an EEG device is unconventional and complicated by imperfect interrater reliability. We sought to compare the DA of a miniature, wireless, battery-powered EEG device ("microEEG") to a reference EEG machine in emergency department (ED) patients with altered mental status (AMS). Two hundred twenty-five ED patients with AMS underwent 3 EEGs. Two EEGs, EEG1 (Nicolet Monitor, "reference") and EEG2 (microEEG) were recorded simultaneously with EEG cup electrodes using a signal splitter. The remaining study, EEG3, was recorded with microEEG using an electrode cap immediately before or after EEG1/EEG2. The official EEG1 interpretation was considered the gold standard (EEG1-GS). EEG1, 2, and 3 were de-identified and blindly interpreted by two independent readers. A generalized mixed linear model was used to estimate the sensitivity and specificity of these interpretations relative to EEG1-GS and to compute a diagnostic odds ratio (DOR). Seventy-nine percent of EEG1-GS were abnormal. Neither the DOR nor the κf representing interrater reliabilities differed significantly between EEG1, EEG2, and EEG3. The mean setup time was 27 min for EEG1/EEG2 and 12 min for EEG3. The mean electrode impedance of EEG3 recordings was 12.6 kΩ (SD: 31.9 kΩ). The diagnostic accuracy of microEEG was comparable to that of the reference system and was not reduced when the EEG electrodes had high and unbalanced impedances. A common practice with many scientific instruments, measurement of EEG device DA provides an independent and quantitative assessment of device performance.

Antibiotic prophylaxis for ED patients with simple hand lacerations: a feasibility randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The benefit of antibiotic prophylaxis for simple hand lacerations (lacerations that do not involve special structures) has not been adequately studied. OBJECTIVE: To assess the feasibility of a randomized controlled trial to determine the role of antibiotic prophylaxis in emergency department (ED) patients with simple hand lacerations. METHODS: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot trial in 2 urban academic EDs. Adult (≥18 years old) patients with simple hand lacerations were randomized to cephalexin, 500 mg; clindamycin, 300 mg; or placebo (every 6 hours for 7 days, all in identical capsules). OUTCOMES: (1) feasibility determined by the number of patients who agreed to enroll and number of patients who completed follow-up, (2) infection rate (determined by 2 physicians at 10-14 days), (3) satisfaction with wound appearance (measured by a visual analogue scale at 30 days via phone). Medians, quartiles, and percentages with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were used to present data. Groups were compared with Kruskal-Wallis and Fisher exact tests, when appropriate. RESULTS: Over a 5-month period, 123 patients were approached, and 78 consented to enrollment (63%; 95% CI, 55-71%). Five were lost to follow-up (5/78, 6%; 95% CI, 2%-14%). Only one patient had infection on follow-up for an infection rate of 1% (95% CI, 0.01%-8%). Patient's satisfaction with wound appearance did not differ among the groups. CONCLUSION: The findings of this pilot study support the feasibility of a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. The low rate of infection suggests the need of a large sample size for the trial.

Tranexamic acid for traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: The antifibrinolytic agent tranexamic acid (TXA) has demonstrated clinical benefit in trauma patients with severe bleeding, but its effectiveness in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) is unclear. We conducted a systematic review to evaluate the following research question: In ED patients with or at risk of intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) secondary to TBI, does TXA compared to placebo improve patients' outcomes? METHODS: MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, and other databases were searched for randomized controlled trial (RCT) or quasi-RCT studies that compared the effect of TXA to placebo on outcomes of TBI patients. The main outcomes of interest included mortality, neurologic function, hematoma expansion, and adverse effects. We used "Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations" to assess the quality of trials. Two authors independently abstracted data using a data collection form. Results from studies were pooled when appropriate. RESULTS: Of 1030 references identified through the search, 2 high-quality RCTs met inclusion criteria. The effect of TXA on mortality had a pooled relative risk of 0.64 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.41-1.02); on unfavorable functional status, a relative risk of 0.77 (95% CI, 0.59-1.02); and on ICH progression, a relative risk of 0.76 (95% CI, 0.58-0.98). No serious adverse effects (such as thromboembolic events) associated with TXA group were reported in the included trials. CONCLUSION: Pooled results from the 2 RCTs demonstrated statistically significant reduction in ICH progression with TXA and a nonstatistically significant improvement of clinical outcomes in ED patients with TBI. Further evidence is required to support its routine use in patients with TBI.

Interventions to improve emergency department throughput and care delivery indicators: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Emergency department (ED) crowding has repercussions on acute care, contributing to prolonged wait times, length of stay, and left without being seen (LWBS). These indicators are regarded as systemic shortcomings, reflecting a failure to provide equitable and accessible acute care. The objective was to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions aimed at improving ED care delivery indicators. METHODS: This was a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) assessing ED interventions aimed at reducing key metrics of time to provider (TTP), time to disposition (TTD), and LWBS. We excluded disease-specific trials (e.g., stroke). We used Cochrane's revised tool to assess the risk of bias and Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations to rate the quality of evidence. The meta-analysis was performed using a random-effects model and Cochrane Q test for heterogeneity. Data were summarized as means (±SD) for continuous variables and risk ratios (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, and other major databases. A total of 1850 references were scanned and 20 RCTs were selected for inclusion. The trials reported at least one of the three outcomes of TTD, TTP, or LWBS. Most interventions focused on triage liaison physician and point-of-care (POC) testing. Others included upfront expedited workup (ordering tests before full evaluation by a provider), scribes, triage kiosks, and sending notifications to consultants or residents. POC testing decreased TTD by an average of 5-96 min (high heterogeneity) but slightly increased TTP by a mean difference of 2 min (95% CI 0.6-4 min). Utilizing a triage liaison physician reduced TTD by 28 min (95% CI 19-37 min; moderate-quality evidence) and was more effective in reducing LWBS than routine triage (RR 0.76, 95% CI 0.66-0.88; moderate quality). CONCLUSIONS: Operational strategies such as POC testing and triage liaison physicians could mitigate the impact of ED crowding and appear to be effective. The current evidence supports these strategies when tailored to the appropriate practice environment.

Prevalence of non-convulsive seizure and other electroencephalographic abnormalities in ED patients with altered mental status.

UNLABELLED: Four to ten percent of patients evaluated in emergency departments (ED) present with altered mental status (AMS). The prevalence of non-convulsive seizure (NCS) and other electroencephalographic (EEG) abnormalities in this population is unknown. OBJECTIVES: To identify the prevalence of NCS and other EEG abnormalities in ED patients with AMS. METHODS: A prospective observational study at 2 urban ED. Inclusion: patients ≥13 years old with AMS. Exclusion: An easily correctable cause of AMS (e.g. hypoglycemia). A 30-minute standard 21-electrode EEG was performed on each subject upon presentation. OUTCOME: prevalence of EEG abnormalities interpreted by a board-certified epileptologist. EEGs were later reviewed by 2 blinded epileptologists. Inter-rater agreement (IRA) of the blinded EEG interpretations is summarized with κ. A multiple logistic regression model was constructed to identify variables that could predict the outcome. RESULTS: Two hundred fifty-nine patients were enrolled (median age: 60, 54% female). Overall, 202/259 of EEGs were interpreted as abnormal (78%, 95% confidence interval [CI], 73-83%). The most common abnormality was background slowing (58%, 95% CI, 52-68%) indicating underlying encephalopathy. NCS (including non-convulsive status epilepticus [NCSE]) was detected in 5% (95% CI, 3-8%) of patients. The regression analysis predicting EEG abnormality showed a highly significant effect of age (P < .001, adjusted odds ratio 1.66 [95% CI, 1.36-2.02] per 10-year age increment). IRA for EEG interpretations was modest (κ: 0.45, 95% CI, 0.36-0.54). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of EEG abnormalities in ED patients with undifferentiated AMS is significant. ED physicians should consider EEG in the evaluation of patients with AMS and a high suspicion of NCS/NCSE.

Assessing hospital preparedness: comparison of an on-site survey with a self-reported, internet-based, long-distance tabletop drill.

BACKGROUND: Methods of defining hospital disaster preparedness are poorly defined in the literature, leaving wide discrepancies between a hospital's self-reported preparedness and that assessed by an objective reviewer. OBJECTIVES: This study compared self-reported surge capacity data from individual hospitals, obtained from a previously reported long-distance tabletop drill (LDTT) prior to the 2010 FIFA World Cup tournament in Cape Town, South Africa, with surge capacity data assessed by an on-site survey inspection team. METHODS: In this prospective, observational study, contact persons used in the prior LDTT assessing hospital disaster preparedness in the lead-up to the 2010 FIFA World Cup made surge capacity assessments (licensed bed capacity plus surge capacity beds) for the respiratory intensive care unit (RICU), neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), medical intensive care unit (MICU), and general medical/surgical beds in each hospital. Following the 2010 World Cup, this data was then re-evaluated by an on-site survey team consisting of two of the authors. RESULTS: The contact persons for the individual hospitals from the LDTT underreported their individual hospital's surge capacity in 86% (95% CI, 46%-99%) of RICU beds; 100% (95% CI, 63%-100%) of MICU beds; 75% (95% CI, 40%-94%) of NICU beds; and 71% (95% CI, 35%-92%) of medical/surgical beds compared with the on-site inspection team. CONCLUSIONS: The contact persons for the LDTT overwhelmingly underreported surge capacity beds compared with the surge capacity determined by the on-site inspection team.