Association between dietary patterns and blood lipid profiles among Chinese women.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to identify dietary patterns and explore their associations with blood lipid profiles among Chinese women. DESIGN: In a cross-sectional study, we identified dietary patterns using principal component analysis of data from three consecutive 24 h dietary recalls. The China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) collected blood samples in the morning after an overnight fast and measured total cholesterol (TC), HDL cholesterol (HDL-C), LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) and TAG. SETTING: Data were from the 2009 wave of the CHNS. SUBJECTS: We studied 2468 women aged 18-80 years from the CHNS. RESULTS: We identified three dietary patterns: traditional southern (high intakes of rice, pork and vegetables), snack (high intakes of fruits, eggs and cakes) and Western (high intakes of poultry, fast foods and milk). The traditional southern pattern was inversely associated with HDL-C (ß=-0·68; 95 % CI -1·22, -0·14; P<0·05). The snack pattern was significantly associated with higher TAG (ß=4·14; 95 % CI 0·44, 7·84; P<0·05). The Western pattern was positively associated with TC (ß=2·52; 95 % CI 1·03, 4·02; P<0·01) and LDL-C (ß=2·26; 95 % CI 0·86, 3·66; P<0·01). CONCLUSIONS: We identified three dietary patterns that are significantly associated with blood lipid profiles. This information is important for developing interventions and policies addressing dyslipidaemia prevention among Chinese women.

[Effect of dietary cholesterol intake on stroke incidence among Chinese adults: evidence from China Health and Nutrition Survey].

OBJECTIVE: To examine the longitudinal association between dietary cholesterol intake and stroke incidence in Chinese adults. METHODS: The data were from 5833 non-stroke participants aged 30-98 in 1997 and more than one repeated measurements in the following five waves (2000, 2004, 2006, 2009 and 2011) of the China Health and Nutrition Survey. 5805 participants were included eventually after removing those with abnormal dietary cholesternul intake. Dietary cholesterol and energy intake was assessed with 3 d - 24 h dietary recalls in all the waves. Self-reported hypertension, diabetes mellitus, alcohol drinking, smoking, and standardized measurement of waist circumstance were collected also. Time-dependent Cox proportional hazard regression models were constructed to estimate relative risks (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: During the mean 11. 3 years follow-up, 198 stroke events of 5805 participants were ascertained. The quintiles dietary cholesterol intake were 70.0, 146.9, 218.3, 297.8 and 425.9 mg/d. After adjusted for potential confounders, the time-dependent cholesterol intake, baseline cholesterol intake and the mean cholesterol intake during 1997-2011 were insignificantly associated with stroke. The relative risks and 95% confidence intervals were 1. 000 (0.999 - 1.001), 1.000 (0.999 - 1.001 ) and 0.999 (0.998 - 1.001) respectively. The cholesterol intake quintiles were insignificantly associated with stroke incidence. The relative risks and 95% confidence intervals versus lowest quintile were 0.812 (0.504 - 1.310), 0.644 (0.389 - 1.066) 0.913 (0.576 - 1.446) and 0.692 (0.416 - 1.152) respectively. CONCLUSION: Effect of dietary cholesterol intake on stroke incidence might was insignificant in Chinese adults.

Dietary patterns and their associations with childhood obesity in China.

Dietary patterns represent the combined effects of foods, and illustrate efficaciously the impact of diet on health outcomes. Some findings of previous studies have limited applicability to Chinese children due to cultural factors. The present study was designed to identify dietary patterns and determine their relationships with obesity among Chinese children and adolescents. Data collected from 1282 children and adolescents aged 7-17 years from the 2011 China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) were used. Dietary patterns were identified using factor analysis of data from three consecutive 24-h dietary recalls. Weight and height were measured following standard methods, and BMI was calculated. Three dietary patterns were identified: modern (high intakes of milk, fast foods and eggs), traditional north (high intakes of wheat, tubers and other cereals) and traditional south (high intakes of vegetables, rice and pork). After adjusting for some confounders and total energy intake, subjects in the highest quartiles of the modern and traditional north patterns were found to have significantly greater risk of obesity (OR 3·10, 95 % CI 1·52, 6·32, and OR 2·42, 95 % CI 1·34, 4·39, respectively). In conclusion, the modern dietary pattern and the traditional north dietary pattern were associated with higher risk of obesity. Promoting healthier eating patterns could help prevent obesity in Chinese children.

[Pre-packaged foods' nutritional ingredients analysis among 706 adult residents in cities in China].

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the nutritional ingredients of daily consumed pre-packaged foods in Chinese adult residents. METHODS: From October to December 2013, the nutrition labels of pre-packaged foods consumed in continuous 7 days by 706 adult residents were collected by multi-stage stratified cluster random sampling in 18 communities with 360 households in 9 cities in China including Beijing, Shanghai, Chongqing, Shenyang, Haerbin,Jinan,Zhengzhou, Changsha and Nanning. The contents of energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate, sodium and the percentages of low-fat and low-sodium foods were compared among 7 different kinds of foods including baked foods, convenient foods, leisure foods, puffed foods, milk, beverages and seasonings. RESULTS: 871 kinds of pre-packaged foods were collected. The median (min, max) of energy contents of puffed foods, baked foods and leisure foods were 2 155(1 638-2 785) kJ/100 g, 1 980 (582-2 639) kJ/100 g, 1 575 (353-3 015) kJ/100 g respectively. The median (min, max) of fat contents of puffed foods, baked foods and leisure foods were 30.0 (5.0-40.9) g/100 g, 20.5 (0.3-40.5) g/100 g, 15.1 (0-71.4) g/100 g respectively. The contents of carbohydrate of baked foods, convenient foods and puffed foods were high relatively, the medians (min, max) of which were 58.1(19.8-82.5), 56.5(0-90.7), and 56.1(42.6-75.8)g/100 g respectively. The sodium content of seasoning was the highest, which was 2 177 (20-12 000) mg/100 g. The protein content of beverage was the lowest, which was 0.4(0-17.8)g/100 ml. CONCLUSION: The energy and fat contents of puffed foods, baked foods and leisure foods were high. The carbohydrate contents of baked foods, convenient foods and puffed foods were high relatively. The sodium content of seasonings was high. The protein contents of beverages were low.

The effect of cultured autologous oral mucosal epithelial cells on ocular surface reconstruction.

Introduction: Oral epithelial cells were recently shown to be able to differentiate into corneal epithelium, and the efficacy of cultured autologous oral mucosal epithelial cells (CAOMEC) has been suggested by the presence of epithelium replacement. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the treatment outcome in limbal stem cell deficiency (LSCD) by adding CAOMEC to regular amniotic membrane (AM) treatment. Material and methods: Eyes with LSCD were randomized to two groups to undergo either autologous oral mucosal epithelial cell sheet (CAOMECS) combined with AM transplantation (A group) or AM transplantation alone (B group). Clinical outcome measures were corneal epithelium healing, best corrected visual acuity, symblepharon, corneal transparency, corneal neovascularization and ocular surface inflammation. Results: The normal corneal epithelialization rate in group A (73.33%) was higher than that in group B (35.48%), and the average healing time was shorter (3.45 ±2.12 weeks vs. 4.64 ±1.63 weeks). The symblepharon in the above two groups was improved in the first 3 months after surgery, but after 6 months, part of the B group had recurrence. In improving corneal transparency, group A has obvious advantages. Corneal neovascularization (CNV) was improved to some extent in the first 3 months after surgery, but group A (1.47 ±0.64) was better than group B (1.94 ±0.85) after 6 months. Both groups can improve the inflammatory state to some extent. Conclusions: The transplantation of CAOMECS offers a viable and safe alternative in the reconstruction of a stable ocular surface. The effect is better than that of traditional AM transplantation, mainly in promoting corneal epithelialization, improving ocular surface structure, and reducing fiber and vascular infiltration.

[Trend in meat consumption patterns among Chinese children in nine provinces(autonomous region) aged 6 to 17 years between 1991 and 2011].

OBJECTIVE: To examine the trend in meat consumption patterns between 1991 and 2011 in Chinese children in nine provinces(autonomous region) aged 6 to 17 years. METHODS: A multistage, random cluster sampling process was used to investigate 2720, 2702, 2525, 2405, 1509, 1238, 1085, and 936 children and adolescents aged 6-17 years in 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006, 2009 and 2011 respectively in 9 provinces (autonomous region) in China. Their consecutive 3 d 24 h dietary recall data were analyzed to compare meat intake pattern in children and adolescents with different characteristics and different years. RESULTS: The consumption rate increased from 60.9% (1657/2720) in 1991 to 87.2% (816/936) in 2011 for livestock meat (χ(2) = 458.23, P < 0.01), from 9.4% (257/2720) to 33.3% (312/936) for poultry (χ(2) = 446.07, P < 0.01) and from 27.3% (743/2720) to 40.6% (380/936) for seafood (χ(2) = 89.89, P < 0.01). The median of total meat intake increased from 47.4 g/d in 1991 to 100.0 g/d in 2011 (χ(2) = 516.77, P < 0.01), poultry intake from 33.3 g/d to 60.0 g/d (χ(2) = 420.13, P < 0.01), pork intake from 26.7 g/d to 50.0 g/d (χ(2) = 380.50, P < 0.01). The percentage of children whose livestock meat and poultry intakes higher than the recommended amount increased from 32.9% (896/2720) in 1991 to 59.8% (560/936) in 2011 (χ(2) = 392.97, P < 0.01); the percentage of children whose seafood intakes meeting the recommended amount increased from 6.9% (187/2720) in 1991 to 8.8% (82/936) in 2011 (χ(2) = 21.52, P < 0.01). The consumption rates of livestock meat in urban and rural children increased from 81.2% (536/660) and 54.4% (1121/2060) in 1991 to 94.7% (234/247) (χ(2) = 38.34, P < 0.01) and 84.5% (582/689) (χ(2) = 429.26, P < 0.01) in 2011. The intakes of livestock meat in rural children increased from 16.7 g/d in 1991 to 56.7 g/d in 2011 (χ(2) = 472.46, P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: The overall pattern of meat consumption in Chinese children in nine provinces(autonomous region) was unreasonable between 1991 and 2011. There was a significant improvement in meat consumption in rural children over time.

[Status and trend of fat and cholesterol intake among Chinese middle and old aged residents in 9 provinces from 1991 to 2009].

OBJECTIVE: To study the status and trend of fat and cholesterol intake among Chinese middle and old aged residents in 9 provinces from 1991 to 2009, and provide the basic reference material for the revision of Chinese DRIs. METHOD: The data were collected in 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006 and 2009 from China Health and Nutrition Survey. The sample was 50 years old and over of health male and female residents and the intake of fat, cholesterol and mean percentage of energy from fat was calculated and compared with Chinese DRIs. RESULTS: The results showed that, in 1991 - 2009, the dietary fats, mean percentage of energy from total fat and intake of cholesterol had an increasing trend in the surveyed population of 9 provinces, and in 2009, the results was 81.9 g/d, 270.8 mg/d and 31.8% in male, and was 70.4 g/d, 238.5 mg/d and 32.2% in female respectively. The percentage of population whose mean percentage of energy from total fat exceed 30% and intake of cholesterol exceed 300 mg/d increased significantly, and in 2009, the results was 54.7% and 35.8% in male, and was 56.9% and 29.8% in female respectively. CONCLUSION: The dietary structure of middle and old aged residents in Chinese 9 provinces had changed significantly, and the percentage of energy from total fat and intake of cholesterol had closed or exceeded the Chinese DRIs. So the intake of food that is rich in fat and cholesterol should be controlled.

[Trends in dietary protein intake among Chinese children and adolescent between 1991 and 2009].

OBJECTIVE: To examine dietary protein intake and its trend between 1991 and 2009 among Chinese children and adolescents aged 6 to 17 years. METHODS: Consecutive 3 d-24 hr Dietary Recall and household income data of 14 053 children from the seven waves of the China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS), 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006 and 2009 were used to describe long-term changes in dietary protein intake, percentage energy, and food sources. RESULTS: The median of dietary protein intake of Chinese children and adolescents decreased from 60.0 g/d in 1991 to 52.6 g/d in 2009 (χ² = 109.0, P < 0.01). The dietary protein intake among children in rural areas and in low-income households decreased 8.8 g/d (χ² = 74.8, P < 0.01) and 9.8 g/d (χ² = 100.5, P < 0.01) respectively. The percentage of total energy intake from protein was 11.3%-13.0%. The percentage of protein intake equal or higher than Recommended Nutrient Intake of protein decreased from 29.5% in 1991 to 19.2% in 2009 (χ² = 259.6, P < 0.01). Furthermore, the proportion of high-quality dietary protein increased rapidly. The percentage of animal protein increased from 12.3% in 1991 to 32.2% in 2009 (χ² = 750.3, P < 0.01), while no big increase in soybean protein (lower than 5.0%). CONCLUSION: There is a decreasing trend in dietary protein intake among Chinese children from 1991 to 2009. The high-quality protein intake was improved but we should be concerned about the high proportion of animal protein. The children living in low-income households and in rural areas may be at risk of inadequate dietary protein.

[Trend of energy intake among Chinese children and adolescents in nine provinces from 1989 to 2009].

OBJECTIVE: To examine the trends of energy intake among Chinese children and adolescents in nine provinces from 1989 to 2009. METHOD: Stratified multi-stage cluster sampling method was used to recruit 488, 2807, 2802, 2580, 2520, 1604, 1305 and 1159 children and adolescents aged 6 - 17 years in each year of 1989, 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006 and 2009 in 9 provinces. The descriptive analyses were carried out for three days 24-h dietary recall data to compare energy intake by year and demographic characteristics. RESULTS: The median of dietary energy intake among Chinese children and adolescents aged 6 - 17 years in 1989, 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006 and 2009 were 6645.7, 8314.8, 7849.3, 8115.0, 7970.5, 7598.0, 7345.0 and 7051.9 kJ/d (χ(2) = 239.75, P < 0.01), respectively. In 2009, children and adolescents from city (7820.4 kJ/d) and county (7356.0 kJ/d) consumed more energy than that from suburb (7168.2 kJ/d) and village (6863.5 kJ/d) (χ(2) = 8.00, P < 0.05). Cereal was the main food source of energy intake. In 2009, the percentage of energy intake from cereal was 44.0%, 45.6%, 52.9% and 61.0% (χ(2) = 36.75, P < 0.01)for city, suburb, county and village respectively. The percentage of population with > 30% of energy intake from dietary fat increased yearly and that with more than 60% of energy from carbohydrate decreased, from 25.4% (124/488) and 54.1% (264/488) in 1989 to 58.1% (637/1159) and 15.9% (184/1159) (χ(2) values were 811.24, 919.35 respectively;both P values < 0.05) in 2009. The percentage of children and adolescents whose energy intake was more than 80% recommended nutrient intake (RNI) declined from 60.2% (294/488) in 1989 to 47.8% (554/1159) in 2009(χ(2) = 227.66, P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The current study demonstrated that energy intake of Chinese children and adolescents increased at early stage and then declined in the recent years. Average energy intake was higher in city and county than suburb and village.

[Trend in dietary vitamin C intake among Chinese children and adolescents between 1991 and 2009].

OBJECTIVE: To examine status and trend in dietary vitamin C intake between 1991 and 2009 in Chinese children and adolescents aged 6 to 17 years. METHODS: A stratified multistage, random cluster sampling process was used to investigate 2716, 2691, 2507, 2358, 1490, 1218 and 1073 children and adolescents aged 6 - 17 years in 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006 and 2009 respectively in 9 provinces. Their consecutive 3 d 24 h dietary recall data were analyzed to compare vitamin C intake in children and adolescents with different characteristics and different years. RESULTS: The median of dietary vitamin C intake in Chinese children and adolescents decreased from 69.7 mg/d in 1991 to 53.4 mg/d in 2009 (χ(2) = 188.1, P < 0.01). Vitamin C intake of rural children and adolescents decreased from 73.7 mg/d in 1991 to 52.5 mg/d in 2009 (χ(2) = 96.7, P < 0.01); vitamin C intake of children and adolescents in the low-income household decreased from 74.3 mg/d in 1991 to 47.5 mg/d in 2009 (χ(2) = 172.9, P < 0.01). The percentage of children and adolescents whose vitamin C intake equal or higher than recommended nutrient intake of vitamin C decreased from 35.9% (974/2716) in 1991 to 18.5% (198/1073) in 2009 (χ(2) = 284.7, P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: There was a decreased trend in dietary vitamin C in Chinese children and adolescents during the past two decades. The children and adolescents of low-income household in rural areas may pose a higher risk of inadequate vitamin C intake.

[Effect of nutritional status in childhood on health status in adulthood].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of nutritional status in childhood on health status in adulthood. METHODS: Data were collected from the China Health and Nutrition Survey in 1991, 1993, 1997, 2001, 2004 and 2006, and the subjects were older than 2 and no more than 18 year-old at the Survey in 1991 and remained in the same cohort with completed records through all six surveys. Mixed effect linear model was used to study the trajectory of BMI. Proportional hazards model was used to study the hazard risk of hypertension in adulthood. RESULTS: Generally, the thinness or overweight-obesity status in childhood followed a same trend till adulthood. Nutritional status in childhood and the educational level of their parents appeared to be related to risk factors of hypertension in adulthood. The hazard ratio of not developing hypertension for additional 1 gram of protein intake per day in male subjects was 0.991, and which for additional 1 kcal of energy intake per day in female subjects was 0.9997. CONCLUSION: The nutritional health status in childhood keeps the same trajectory till adulthood.

[Intergenerational differences on the nutritional status and lifestyle of Chinese residents].

OBJECTIVE: To study the diversities on nutritional status and lifestyle of adult Chinese residents born in different years. METHOD: The data of healthy adult residents born in the 1960s and 1980s were selected from the CHNS 1993 and 2009. Information on physical examination, nutrient intake and lifestyle factors were used as indicators to evaluate the nutritional status of residents; data was analyzed by SAS and STATA software. RESULTS: (1) Weight, height, BMI, waist circumference, hip circumference, waist-hip ratio, skin fold thickness, overweight/obesity, hypertension rate of residents born in the 1980s were all significantly higher than residents born in the 1960s. (2) Dietary fats intake, percentage of energy contributed from total fat, cholesterol intake, calcium intake and the rate of energy and cholesterol intake exceeding the Chinese dietary reference intakes (Chinese DRIs) of residents born in the 1980s were all significantly higher than residents born in the 1960s, however, the energy intake,carbohydrate intake, salt intake, vitamin B1 intake, vitamin C intake, the energy contributed from carbohydrates and the rate of vitamin B1 intake and vitamin C intake exceeding the Chinese DRIs of residents born in the 1980s were all significantly lower in residents born in the 1960s. (3) The smoking rates, rates of drinking tea and the percentage of population engaged in medium or vigorous physical activity of residents born in the 1980s were all significantly lower than residents born in the 1960s. CONCLUSION: The diversity of nutritional status and lifestyle in different generations could not be ignored, and the phenomenon of increased prevalence of nutrition-related non-communicable diseases (NR-NCDs) of residents born in 1980s should be concerned.

[Relationship between adiposity indicators and blood pressure of urban and rural residents in China].

OBJECTIVE: To explore the relationship between adiposity and blood pressure (BP)of urban and rural residents in China. METHODS: The data in the China Health and Nutrition survey (CHNS) in 2006 were utilized. Cross-sectional analysis was carried out on the relationship between blood pressure and body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) among 6433 adult inhabitants aged 18-60 from 9 provinces of China. A multiple regression equation was used for the prediction of blood pressure with these indicators. RESULTS: The average SBP and DBP were increased linearly with the increase of BMI, WC, WHR and WHtR. A statistically significant linear association was found between each adiposity indicator and BP level in separate regression models controlled by age. The regression coefficients were higher in women than that in men. A gain of 0.77 in BMI, 2.43 cm in WC, 2.66% in WHR and 1.54% in WHtR for men and a gain of 0.75, 2.12 cm, 2.54% and 1.53% respectively for women would have a corresponding elevation of 1 mmHg in SBP. Multiple stepwise regression analyses showed that DBP was related with WHtR. CONCLUSION: There was a stable linear relationship between adiposity indicators and BP. WHtR not a good predicator of SBP and DBP in Chinese adults.

[Feeding status of children under 2 years old in poor rural areas of western China in 2009].

OBJECTIVE: To analyze feeding status of children under 2 years old in the poor rural areas of western China in 2009. METHODS: The study subjects were 2933 from the program of 'Study on appropriate technology of children under-nutrition improvement in poor rural areas'. RESULTS: In 2009, the rate of almost exclusive breast-feeding of children under 6 months in poor rural areas of western China was 38.3%, the time of giving complementary food was the 5th month and the weaning time was the 10th month. CONCLUSION: The study demonstrated that it is unreasonable of feeding status in poor rural areas of western China.

Dietary patterns and hypertension among Chinese adults: a nationally representative cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Several healthful dietary patterns appear to be effective at lowering blood pressure and preventing hypertension. However, the relationship between dietary patterns and hypertension among a representative Chinese population sample is unclear. METHODS: A nationally representative sample of 23 671 participants aged 18-59 years were recruited by the 2002 China National Nutrition and Health Survey. All participants had their blood pressure measured with standardized mercury sphygmomanometers. Hypertension was defined as systolic blood pressure ≥140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg. We conducted factor analysis using dietary information from a validated food frequency questionnaire to derive dietary patterns. Information of participants on physical activities, education level, annual household income, smoking status and family history of hypertension was collected by interviewer-administrated questionnaires. RESULTS: Three major dietary patterns, defined as 'Western', 'traditional northern', and 'traditional southern', were identified. Participants with the highest quartile for the score of the Western pattern had significantly higher blood pressure comparing with counterparts in the lowest quartile. In contrast, participants in the top quartile for the score of the traditional southern pattern presented significantly lower blood pressure comparing with counterparts in the lowest quartile. In multivariate analyses the traditional northern pattern score was associated with an odds ratio (OR) of 1.30 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.11-1.53, P for trend = 0.0001) comparing with the lowest quartile. The OR for the top quartile of score for the traditional southern pattern was 0.73 (95% CI, 0.59-0.89, P for trend = 0.0040) compared with the lowest quartile of traditional southern pattern score. However, the significant association between the traditional northern pattern and prevalence of hypertension disappeared after further adjusting for body mass index (BMI) (P for trend = 0.3), whereas the association between the traditional southern pattern and prevalence of hypertension persisted after further adjusting for BMI (P for trend = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: We observed a positive relationship between the traditional northern pattern and hypertension that was mediated through differences in BMI. In addition, the traditional southern pattern was significantly associated with lower odds of presenting with hypertension.

[The status of dietary sodium intake of Chinese population in nine provinces (autonomous region) from 1991 to 2006].

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the status of dietary sodium intake of 18 - 65 years old Chinese people in nine provinces (autonomous region) in 1991 and 2006. METHODS: In 1991 and 2006, China Health and Nutrition Survey was carried out in nine provinces, including Liaoning, Heilongjiang, Shandong, Jiangsu, Henan, Hunan, Hubei, Guangxi and Guizhou, Subjects were selected by multi-stage stratified cluster random sampling method from 18 - 65 years old people and 8235 subjects in 1991 and 7788 subjects in 2006. Sodium intake analysis was conducted across gender, regions and rural(urban) residences. RESULTS: On average, sodium intake decreased from (6750.6 ± 3771.5) mg/d in 1991 to (4949.7 ± 2829.4) mg/d in 2006 (Z = -35.5, P < 0.01) among the 18 - 65 years old people. In 1991 and 2006, the main sources of dietary sodium were salt, soy sauce and vegetable. In 1991, the proportion were 79.6% ((5375.6 ± 3532) mg/d), 8.7% ((586.7 ± 721.7) mg/d) and 7.5% ((506.9 ± 906.1) mg/d), respectively. In 2006, the proportion were 71.5% ((3539.8 ± 2545) mg/d), 8.3% ((410.7 ± 547.9) mg/d) and 6.2% ((304.6 ± 610.7) mg/d), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Among 18 - 65 years old residents, sodium intake in 2006 was significantly lower than that in 1991, but still far beyond the 2200 mg/d of adequate intake level (2200 mg/d). The major source of sodium intake in Chinese diet was condiments.

[The status and trend of cereal consumption among Chinese adults in nine provinces (municipality) from 1989 to 2006].

OBJECTIVE: To explore the status and trend of cereal consumption among Chinese adults aged 18 to 59 years in nine provinces (municipality) from 1989 to 2006. METHODS: The survey data were collected by consecutive 3 d 24 h dietary recall method in 1989, 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004 and 2006 China Health and Nutrition Survey Project. The subjects aged 18-59 years with complete information on dietary survey were included. The sample number of the subjects were 5978, 7566, 7492, 7738, 8439, 7484 and 7157 in the 7 round surveys from 1989 to 2006, respectively. The trends of their cereal consuming rate and daily intake were analyzed by year, gender, age and regions. RESULTS: The cereal intake of 18 - 59 years old Chinese adults in 9 provinces (municipality) decreased from 522.3 g/d in 1989 to 431.9 g/d in 2006 (χ(2) = 2421.76, P < 0.01). The cereal intake of males decreased from 545.6 g/d in 1989 to 471.6 g/d in 2006 (χ(2) = 861.21, P < 0.01) and females decreased from 500.3 g/d in 1989 to 395.5 g/d in 2006 (χ(2) = 1844.13, P < 0.01). Compared with 1989, the average cereal consumption were reduced to 104.8, 134.4, 103.3 and 98.2 g in the suburban, female, 18 to 29 years old age group and level of education for college and above separately in 2006. The rice consuming rate among 18 - 59 year-old residents increased from 79.9% (4776/5978) in 1989 to 87.3% (6248/7157) (Z = 18.45, P < 0.01) in 2006, the wheat consuming rate increased from 63.3% (3784/5978) in 1989 to 80.2% (5740/7157) (Z = 27.28, P < 0.01) in 2006. CONCLUSION: The present study indicated that there was a decreasing trend of cereal intake among Chinese adults aged 18 - 59 years in 9 provinces (municipality). In the stratified groups, cereal intake in groups of female, suburb, aged 18 - 59 years and higher educational level decreased significantly.

[Milk consumption and its changing trend of Chinese adult aged 18 - 44 in nine provinces (autonomous region) from 1991 to 2006].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the age, gender and region specified milk consumption and its changing trends of Chinese 18 - 44 years old adults in 9 provinces (autonomous region) from 1991 to 2006. METHODS: The data of 18 - 44 aged old adults investigated in Chinese Health and Nutrition Survey from 1991 to 2006 in 9 provinces (autonomous region) were utilized. The numbers of the subjects selected in 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004 and 2006 were 5593, 5491, 5334, 4188 and 3908, respectively. Changes of the percentage of milk consumption, average intake of daily milk and dietary calcium intake were analyzed across different groups of gender, income levels, and areas. RESULTS: There was an increasing trend in the percentage of milk consumption and daily intake of milk from 1991 to 2006. The average percentage of Chinese adult milk consumption went up from 2.2% (123/5593) in 1991 to 7.6% (297/3908) in 2006 (Z = -22.16, P < 0.01). Specifically, urban adult and rural adult showed significant increase in the percentages from 9.7% (80/823) to 23.7% (112/472) (Z = -12.81, P < 0.01) and 0.1% (2/2937) to 1.8% (36/1987) (Z = -9.21, P < 0.01) respectively. Percentages of adult who ever drank milk at top income level and bottom income level increased from 4.7% (95/2006) to 14.6% (200/1373) (Z = -17.36, P < 0.01) and from 0.1% (2/1748) to 2.4% (28/1171) (Z = -9.58, P < 0.01), respectively. Meanwhile, the average daily intake of milk increased from (3.6 ± 24.6) g/d in 1991 to (11.8 ± 51.4) g/d in 2006 (F = 67.07, P < 0.01). The daily milk consumption among top income level adults and bottom income level adults increased from (8.5 ± 50.9) g/d to (23.1 ± 71.5) g/d and from (0.2 ± 6.5) g/d to (3.3 ± 23.5) g/d (F = 13.90, P < 0.01), respectively. From 1991 to 2006, milk consumers significantly promoted their percentage of achieving the Chinese dietary reference intake on calcium (800 mg/d) from 6.5% (8/123) to 12.8% (38/297) (Z = -1.67, P < 0.05), whereas this percentage increased from 1.6% (38/5470) to 3.6% (130/3611) among milk non-consumers (Z = -5.66, P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Chinese adult milk intake still remains in quite low level, and the situation of milk consumption among rural adults requires further promotion.

[Milk consumption and effects on dietary nutrients and growth status among Chinese children in nine provinces (autonomous region) from 1991 to 2006].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate milk consumption and effects on dietary nutrients and growth status among 7 - 17 years-old Chinese children in 9 provinces (autonomous region) from 1991 to 2006. METHODS: Data was collected in 1991, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004 and 2006 China Health and Nutrition Survey, and 11 691 subjects aged 7 to 17 years old were included. The subjects were divided into the following groups according to milk consumption per day, 0 (no milk drinking), 1 - 99, 100 - 199, 200 - 299 and ≥ 300 g/d. Variables from different years were compared, such as milk categories, energy, protein, calcium intake, body mass index (BMI), as well as that dietary nutrients, height and weight among different milk consumption groups. RESULTS: From 1991 to 2006, milk drinking rate and milk consumption among Chinese children had great improvement: milk drinking rate reached to 14.1% (161/1145) in 2006, while that was 3.0% (73/2441) in 1991; milk consumption reached to (26.7 ± 85.0) g/d in 2006, which was 6.8 times of that in 1991 (3.9 ± 31.9) g/d (χ(2) = 474.5, P < 0.01). BMI increased from (17.3 ± 2.9) kg/m(2) in 1991 to (18.5 ± 6.0) kg/m(2) in 2006 (χ(2) = 123.5, P < 0.01). Meanwhile, energy intake decreased from (8653.3 ± 2789.2) kJ/d in 1991 to (8058.3 ± 2866.6) kJ/d in 2006 (χ(2) = 72.6, P < 0.01); protein intake decreased from (63.0 ± 22.8) g/d in 1991 to (57.3 ± 23.1) g/d in 2006 (χ(2) = 71.9, P < 0.01). Average height of 0 (no milk drinking), 1 - 99, 100 - 199, 200 - 299 and ≥ 300 g/d groups were (142.9 ± 16.9), (146.9 ± 18.8), (147.6 ± 16.2), (148.8 ± 16.0), (149.9 ± 15.3) cm, respectively (χ(2) = 29.4, P < 0.01); average weight were (37.1 ± 13.2), (40.3 ± 13.9), (41.3 ± 16.9), (41.7 ± 14.6), (41.4 ± 12.2) kg, respectively (χ(2) = 25.7, P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: In the period of 1991 to 2006, milk drinking rate and milk consumption has improved greatly. Main nutrient intake, height and weight increased with milk consumption.

[Status and trend of alcohol consumption among adults in nine provinces (antonomous region) of China from 1993 to 2006].

OBJECTIVE: To understand the status and trend of alcohol consumption among adult people living in 9 provinces (autonomous region) of China from 1993 to 2006. METHODS: The data was collected at the China Health and Nutrition Survey in 1993, 1997, 2000, 2004 and 2006, the subjects with complete drinking data of adult residents were involved. The sample of subjects were 7994, 8625, 9283, 9780 and 9746 among 5 round surveys respectively. Alcohol intake, drinking frequency, drinking type, drinking amount and trends of changing was analyzed. RESULTS: The average drinking rates were 60.2% (13 201/21 919) and 9.7% (2269/23 509) among male and female respectively. The average alcohol intake was (32.2 ± 35.6) g in male and (14.0 ± 19.4) g in female drinkers. Male drinkers with primary and secondary schools or below education had the lowest level of drinking rate, which was 59.7% (985/1651), 58.7% (941/1604), 57.0% (889/1560), 55.4% (885/1599) and 53.1% (812/1529) in the 5 round surveys respectively. However, the average daily alcohol intake was the highest, which was (31.1 ± 38.2) g, (39.8 ± 42.1) g, (38.9 ± 41.3) g and (38.4 ± 43.3) g at 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006 respectively. The male drinkers with college or above education had the lowest alcohol intake, which was (21.9 ± 24.5) g, (28.8 ± 30.9) g, (24.6 ± 22.0) g and (25.0 ± 26.4) g in 1997, 2000, 2004 and 2006 respectively. Female drinkers with college or above education had the highest drinking rate, which was 21.0% (13/62), 24.5% (26/106), 16.6% (27/163), 19.7% (38/193) and 18.8% (46/245) at 5 round surveys respectively. But their average daily alcohol intake was lowest, which was (4.7 ± 3.3) g, (12.5 ± 31.9) g, (9.9 ± 18.7) g and (8.2 ± 8.5) g at 1997, 2000, 2004, 2006 respectively. And the average daily alcohol intake was the highest among female drinkers with primary and secondary schools or below education, which was (13.4 ± 16.9) g, (16.3 ± 22.4) g, (19.9 ± 26.1) g and (16.4 ± 18.0) g respectively. According to the regional distribution, the highest drinking rate of female drinker was occurred at urban female, which was 17.4% (110/631), 19.9% (147/740), 17.4% (129/741), 14.4% (117/814) and 11.3% (88/781) at 5 round surveys. Drinking every day was most popular in male drinkers, the proportion was 32.6% (3533/10 844). Drinking 1 to 2 times per week, 1 to 2 times per month, no more than 1 time per month was most popular in female drinkers, the proportion was 23.0% (410/1786), 24.6% (440/1786) and 21.2% (379/1786) respectively. Male drinkers liked liquor more (drinking rate was 81.8%, 8875/10 844). The wine drinking rate of female (22.3%, 399/1786) is far higher than that of male's (9.0%, 976/10 844) (χ(2) = 280.4, P < 0.01). The daily alcohol intake equal to or greater than 25 g of male drinkers was 42.0% (4058/9654), and the daily alcohol intake equal to or greater than 15 g of female drinkers was 25.3% (349/1378). CONCLUSION: The drinking rate of adults among 9 provinces (autonomous region) was higher than that of national average level. The drinking rate and the average alcohol consumption among male and female was significantly different. Same differences was observed among education level and different regions.