PCK2 maintains intestinal homeostasis and prevents colitis by protecting antibody-secreting cells from oxidative stress.

Maintaining intracellular redox balance is essential for the survival, antibody secretion, and mucosal immune homeostasis of immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibody-secreting cells (ASCs). However, the relationship between mitochondrial metabolic enzymes and the redox balance in ASCs has yet to be comprehensively studied. Our study unveils the pivotal role of mitochondrial enzyme PCK2 in regulating ASCs' redox balance and intestinal homeostasis. We discover that PCK2 loss, whether globally or in B cells, exacerbates dextran sodium sulphate (DSS)-induced colitis due to increased IgA ASC cell death and diminished antibody production. Mechanistically, the absence of PCK2 diverts glutamine into the TCA cycle, leading to heightened TCA flux and excessive mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mtROS) production. In addition, PCK2 loss reduces glutamine availability for glutathione (GSH) synthesis, resulting in a decrease of total glutathione level. The elevated mtROS and reduced GSH expose ASCs to overwhelming oxidative stress, culminating in cell apoptosis. Crucially, we found that the mitochondria-targeted antioxidant Mitoquinone (Mito-Q) can mitigate the detrimental effects of PCK2 deficiency in IgA ASCs, thereby alleviating colitis in mice. Our findings highlight PCK2 as a key player in IgA ASC survival and provide a potential new target for colitis treatment.

Comparison of the Hydride-Donating Ability and Activity of Five- and Six-Membered Benzoheterocyclic Compounds in Acetonitrile.

In this work, we compared the hydride-donating ability of five-membered benzoheterocyclic compounds (FMB) and six-membered benzoheterocyclic compounds (SMB), isomers of DMBI and DMIZ and of DMPZ and DMPX, using detailed thermodynamic driving forces [ΔGo (XH)], kinetic intrinsic barriers (ΔG≠XH/X), and thermo-kinetic parameters [ΔG≠° (XH)]. For DMBI and DMIZ, the values of ΔGo (XH), ΔG≠XH/X, and ΔG≠° (XH) are 49.2 and 53.7 kcal/mol, 35.88 and 42.04 kcal/mol, and 42.54 and 47.87 kcal/mol, respectively. For DMPZ and DMPX, the values of ΔGo (XH), ΔG≠XH/X, and ΔG≠° (XH) are 73.2 and 79.5 kcal/mol, 35.34 and 25.02 kcal/mol, and 54.27 and 52.26 kcal/mol, respectively. It is easy to see that the FMB isomers are thermodynamically dominant and that the SMB isomers are kinetically dominant. Moreover, according to the analysis of ΔG≠° (XH), compared to the SMB isomers, the FMB isomers have a stronger hydride-donating ability in actual chemical reactions.

Comparison between 1,2-Dihydropyridine and 1,4-Dihydropyridine on Hydride-Donating Ability and Activity.

In this paper, detailed comparisons of the driving force in thermodynamics and intrinsic force in the kinetics of 1,2-dihydropyridine and 1,4-dihydropyridine isomers of PNAH, HEH, and PYH in hydride transfer reactions are made. For 1,2-PNAH and 1,4-PNAH, the values of the thermodynamic driving forces, kinetic intrinsic barriers, and thermo-kinetic parameters are 60.50 and 61.90 kcal/mol, 27.92 and 26.34 kcal/mol, and 44.21 and 44.12 kcal/mol, respectively. For 1,2-HEH and 1,4-HEH, the values of the thermodynamic driving forces, kinetic intrinsic barriers, and thermo-kinetic parameters are 63.40 and 65.00 kcal/mol, 31.68 and 34.96 kcal/mol, and 47.54 and 49.98 kcal/mol, respectively. For 1,2-PYH and 1,4-PYH, the order of thermodynamic driving forces, kinetic intrinsic barriers, and thermo-kinetic parameters are 69.90 and 72.60 kcal/mol, 33.06 and 25.74 kcal/mol, and 51.48 and 49.17 kcal/mol, respectively. It is not difficult to find that thermodynamically favorable structures are not necessarily kinetically favorable. In addition, according to the analysis of thermo-kinetic parameters, 1,4-PNAH, 1,2-HEH, and 1,4-PYH have a strong hydride-donating ability in actual chemical reactions.

SIRT5 inhibits peroxisomal ACOX1 to prevent oxidative damage and is downregulated in liver cancer.

Peroxisomes account for ~35% of total H2O2 generation in mammalian tissues. Peroxisomal ACOX1 (acyl-CoA oxidase 1) is the first and rate-limiting enzyme in fatty acid ß-oxidation and a major producer of H2O2 ACOX1 dysfunction is linked to peroxisomal disorders and hepatocarcinogenesis. Here, we show that the deacetylase sirtuin 5 (SIRT5) is present in peroxisomes and that ACOX1 is a physiological substrate of SIRT5. Mechanistically, SIRT5-mediated desuccinylation inhibits ACOX1 activity by suppressing its active dimer formation in both cultured cells and mouse livers. Deletion of SIRT5 increases H2O2 production and oxidative DNA damage, which can be alleviated by ACOX1 knockdown. We show that SIRT5 downregulation is associated with increased succinylation and activity of ACOX1 and oxidative DNA damage response in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Our study reveals a novel role of SIRT5 in inhibiting peroxisome-induced oxidative stress, in liver protection, and in suppressing HCC development.

Rapid diagnosis of IDH1-mutated gliomas by 2-HG detection with gas chromatography mass spectrometry.

The metabolic genes encoding isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH1, 2) are frequently mutated in gliomas. Mutation of IDH defines a distinct subtype of glioma and predicts therapeutic response. IDH mutation has a remarkable neomorphic activity of converting α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) to 2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG), which is now commonly referred to as an oncometabolite and biomarker for gliomas. PCR-sequencing (n = 220), immunohistochemistry staining (IHC, n = 220), and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS, n = 87) were applied to identify IDH mutation in gliomas, and the sensitivity and specificity of these strategies were compared. PCR-sequencing and IHC staining are reliable for retrospective assessment of IDH1 mutation in gliomas, but both methods usually take 1-2 days, which hinders their application for rapid diagnosis. GC-MS-based methods can detect 2-HG qualitatively and quantitatively, offering information on the IDH1 mutation status in gliomas with the sensitivity and specificity being 100%. Further optimization of the GC-MS based methodology (so called as the mini-column method) enabled us to determine 2-HG within 40 min in glioma samples without complex or time-consuming preparation. Most importantly, the ratio of 2-HG/glutamic acid was shown to be a reliable parameter for determination of mutation status. The mini-column method enables rapid identification of 2-HG, providing a promising strategy for intraoperative diagnosis of IDH1-mutated gliomas in the future.

Characteristic Activity Parameters of Electron Donors and Electron Acceptors.

It is well-known that for an electron transfer reaction, the electron-donating ability of electron donors and the electron-accepting ability of electron acceptors can be quantitatively described by the oxidation potential of electron donors and the reduction potential of electron acceptors. However, for an electron transfer reaction, the electron-donating activity of electron donors and the electron-accepting activity of electron acceptors cannot be quantitatively described by a characteristic parameter of electron donors and a characteristic parameter of electron acceptors till now. In this paper, a characteristic activity parameter of electron donors and electron acceptors named as their thermo-kinetic parameter is proposed to quantify the electron-donating activity of electron donors and the electron-accepting activity of electron acceptors in electron transfer reactions. At the same time, the thermo-kinetic parameter values of 70 well-known electron donors and the corresponding 70 conjugated electron acceptors in acetonitrile at 298 K are determined. The activation free energies of 4900 typical electron transfer reactions in acetonitrile at 298 K are estimated according to the thermo-kinetic parameter values of 70 electron donors and 70 conjugated electron acceptors, and the estimated results have received good verification of the corresponding independent experimental measurements. The physical meaning of the thermo-kinetic parameter is examined. The relationship of the thermo-kinetic parameter with the corresponding redox potential as well as the relationship of the activation free energy with the corresponding thermodynamic driving force of electron transfer reactions is examined. The results show that the observed relationships between the thermo-kinetic parameters and the redox potentials as well as the observed relationships between the activation free energy and the thermodynamic driving force depend on the choice of electron donors and electron acceptors as well as the electron transfer reactions. The greatest contribution of this paper is to realize the symmetry and unification of kinetic equations and the corresponding thermodynamic equations of electron transfer reactions.

Targeting IRG1 reverses the immunosuppressive function of tumor-associated macrophages and enhances cancer immunotherapy.

Immune-responsive gene 1 (IRG1) encodes aconitate decarboxylase (ACOD1) that catalyzes the production of itaconic acids (ITAs). The anti-inflammatory function of IRG1/ITA has been established in multiple pathogen models, but very little is known in cancer. Here, we show that IRG1 is expressed in tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) in both human and mouse tumors. Mechanistically, tumor cells induce Irg1 expression in macrophages by activating NF-κB pathway, and ITA produced by ACOD1 inhibits TET DNA dioxygenases to dampen the expression of inflammatory genes and the infiltration of CD8+ T cells into tumor sites. Deletion of Irg1 in mice suppresses the growth of multiple tumor types and enhances the efficacy of anti-PD-(L)1 immunotherapy. Our study provides a proof of concept that ACOD1 is a potential target for immune-oncology drugs and IRG1-deficient macrophages represent a potent cell therapy strategy for cancer treatment even in pancreatic tumors that are resistant to T cell-based immunotherapy.

Morphological description and molecular identification of Myxobolus dajiangensis n. sp. (Myxozoa: Myxobolidae) from the gill of Cyprinus carpio in southwest China.

Background: Myxosporean diversity is a hot topic since they are difficult to accurately identify and classify. Many Myxobolus parasites have been named as Myxobolus koi because of their similar morphological features with the species originally reported. However, the distinctions in fine morphological features, host specificity, and molecular data have given rise to the attention of researchers. Methods: The classical morphometric and histological methods were used to describe the Myxobolus dajiangensis n. sp. in morphology. The common techniques in modern molecular biology and the methods of phylogenetic analyses were combined to identify the species. Results: Plasmodia of interlamellar-vascular type were found in the vascular network of gill lamellae. Mature myxospores of M. dajiangensis n. sp. were elongated and pyriform from the frontal view. The myxospores were 14.8 ± 0.4 (13.9-15.6) µm in length, 8.0 ± 0.5 (7.2-9.1) µm in width, and 5.5 µm in thickness. The two polar capsules were pyriform and slightly different in length. The length of the larger polar capsules was 8.0 ± 0.4 (7.1-8.8) µm, and it was 7.4 ± 0.4 (6.1-8.0) µm for the smaller ones. The width of both polar capsules was 2.5 ± 0.2 (2.0-3.2) µm. The polar filaments within the polar capsules were each coiled nine to 11 turns. Comparative analysis of both the morphological and molecular data between the present speices and other similar species revealed that the present species is a novel species, Myxobolus dajiangensis n. sp. Also, M. koi (FJ710800) was misidentified and the congener with M. dajiangensis n. sp., depending on the secondary structures of SSU rRNA and phylogenetic analysis. Moreover, the cryptic species existed in the M. koi parasites.

TET2 deficiency sensitizes tumor cells to statins by reducing HMGCS1 expression.

TET2 (ten-eleven-translocation) protein is a Fe(II)- and α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase that catalyzes DNA demethylation to regulate gene expression. While TET2 gene is frequently mutated in hematological cancer, its enzymatic activity is also compromised in various solid tumors. Whether TET2 deficiency creates vulnerability for cancer cells has not been studied. Here we reported that TET2 deficiency is associated with the change of lipid metabolism processes in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patient. We demonstrate that statins, the inhibitors of ß-Hydroxy ß-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase and commonly used cholesterol-lowering medicines, significantly sensitize TET2 deficient tumor cells to apoptosis. TET2 directly regulates the expression of HMG-CoA synthase (HMGCS1) by catalyzing demethylation on its promoter region, and conversely TET2 deficiency leads to significant down-regulation of HMGCS1 expression and the mevalonate pathway. Consistently, overexpression of HMGCS1 in TET2-deficient cells rescues statin-induced apoptosis. We further reveal that decrease of geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP), an intermediate metabolite in the mevalonate pathway, is responsible for statin-induced apoptosis. GGPP shortage abolishes normal membrane localization and function of multiple small GTPases, leading to cell dysfunction. Collectively, our study reveals a vulnerability in TET2 deficient tumor and a potential therapeutic strategy using an already approved safe medicine.

Elevated nuclear localization of glycolytic enzyme TPI1 promotes lung adenocarcinoma and enhances chemoresistance.

Increased glycolysis is a hallmark of tumor, which can provide tumor cells with energy and building blocks to promote cell proliferation. Recent studies have shown that not only the expression of glycolytic genes but also their subcellular localization undergoes a variety of changes to promote development of different types of tumors. In this study, we performed a comprehensive analysis of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis genes based on data from TCGA to identify those with significant tumor-promoting potential across 14 types of tumors. This analysis not only confirms genes that are known to be involved in tumorigenesis, but also reveals a significant correlation of triosephosphate isomerase 1 (TPI1) with poor prognosis, especially in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD). TPI1 is a glycolytic enzyme that interconverts dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP). We confirm the upregulation of TPI1 expression in clinical LUAD samples and an inverse correlation with the overall patient survival. Knocking down of TPI1 in lung cancer cells significantly reduced cell migration, colony formation, and xenograft tumor growth. Surprisingly, we found that the oncogenic function of TPI1 depends on its translocation to cell nucleus rather than its catalytic activity. Significant accumulation of TPI1 in cell nucleus was observed in LUAD tumor tissues compared with the cytoplasm localization in adjacent normal tissues. Moreover, nuclear translocation of TPI1 is induced by extracellular stress (such as chemotherapy agents and peroxide), which facilitates the chemoresistance of cancer cells. Our study uncovers a novel function of the glycolytic enzyme TPI1 in the LUAD.

Tumor-derived neomorphic mutations in ASXL1 impairs the BAP1-ASXL1-FOXK1/K2 transcription network.

Additional sex combs-like 1 (ASXL1) interacts with BRCA1-associated protein 1 (BAP1) deubiquitinase to oppose the polycomb repressive complex 1 (PRC1)-mediated histone H2A ubiquitylation. Germline BAP1 mutations are found in a spectrum of human malignancies, while ASXL1 mutations recurrently occur in myeloid neoplasm and are associated with poor prognosis. Nearly all ASXL1 mutations are heterozygous frameshift or nonsense mutations in the middle or to a less extent the C-terminal region, resulting in the production of C-terminally truncated mutant ASXL1 proteins. How ASXL1 regulates specific target genes and how the C-terminal truncation of ASXL1 promotes leukemogenesis are unclear. Here, we report that ASXL1 interacts with forkhead transcription factors FOXK1 and FOXK2 to regulate a subset of FOXK1/K2 target genes. We show that the C-terminally truncated mutant ASXL1 proteins are expressed at much higher levels than the wild-type protein in ASXL1 heterozygous leukemia cells, and lose the ability to interact with FOXK1/K2. Specific deletion of the mutant allele eliminates the expression of C-terminally truncated ASXL1 and increases the association of wild-type ASXL1 with BAP1, thereby restoring the expression of BAP1-ASXL1-FOXK1/K2 target genes, particularly those involved in glucose metabolism, oxygen sensing, and JAK-STAT3 signaling pathways. In addition to FOXK1/K2, we also identify other DNA-binding transcription regulators including transcription factors (TFs) which interact with wild-type ASXL1, but not C-terminally truncated mutant. Our results suggest that ASXL1 mutations result in neomorphic alleles that contribute to leukemogenesis at least in part through dominantly inhibiting the wild-type ASXL1 from interacting with BAP1 and thereby impairing the function of ASXL1-BAP1-TF in regulating target genes and leukemia cell growth.

The genomic underpinnings of apoptosis in the silkworm, Bombyx mori.

BACKGROUND: Apoptosis is regulated in an orderly fashion by a series of genes, and has a crucial role in important physiological processes such as growth development, immunological response and so on. Recently, substantial studies have been undertaken on apoptosis in model animals including humans, fruit flies, and the nematode. However, the lack of genomic data for silkworms limits their usefulness in apoptosis studies, despite the advantages of silkworm as a representative of Lepidoptera and an effective model system. Herein we have identified apoptosis-related genes in the silkworm Bombyx mori and compared them to those from insects, mammals, and nematodes. RESULTS: From the newly assembled genome databases, a genome-wide analysis of apoptosis-related genes in Bombyx mori was performed using both nucleotide and protein Blast searches. Fifty-two apoptosis-related candidate genes were identified, including five caspase family members, two tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily members, one Bcl-2 family member, four baculovirus IAP (inhibitor of apoptosis) repeat (BIR) domain family members and 1 RHG (Reaper, Hid, Grim, and Sickle; Drosophila cell death activators) family member. Moreover, we identified a new caspase family member, BmCaspase-New, two splice variants of BmDronc, and Bm3585, a mammalian TNF superfamily member homolog. Twenty-three of these apoptosis-related genes were cloned and sequenced using cDNA templates isolated from BmE-SWU1 cells. Sequence analyses revealed that these genes could have key roles in apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS: Bombyx mori possesses potential apoptosis-related genes. We hypothesized that the classic intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic pathways potentially are active in Bombyx mori. These results lay the foundation for further apoptosis-related study in Bombyx mori.

Correlation study on chromogranin A genetic polymorphism and prognosis of critically ill patients.

OBJECTIVE: The objective was to investigate the correlation between single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of chromogranin A (CHGA) and prognosis of critically ill patients. METHODS: We screened 357 critically ill patients consecutively admitted to our intensive care unit. The -89/-415/-462 SNP locus in the promoter region and the +9559/+9578/+9590/+9611 SNP locus in exon 7 coding of CHGA were genotyped by polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequencing technology. Subsequently, the correlation between genotype and prognosis of patients was analyzed. RESULTS: (1) Three hundred critically ill Chinese Han patients were enrolled in the study. CHGA-415/-462/+9559/+9611 SNPs were polymorphically distributed. Phenotypes of the 4 SNPs were shown not to be in linkage disequilibrium, and there were no significant differences in the minor allele frequencies (MAFs) of the 4 SNPs between participants of this study and healthy people in Asia. (2) The CHGA-415 T/C MAF of the nonsurvival group was significantly higher than that of the survival group (MAF 0.3813 and 0.2864, respectively; P=.026). Survival analysis showed that there were significant differences between the CHGA-415 T/C mutation group (including TC and CC genotypes) and the wild-type group (TT genotype) (log rank=8.887, P=.003). The mortality in the mutant group was significantly higher than that in the wild-type group (0.3333 and 0.1852, respectively; P=.004). (3) Binary logistic analysis showed that CHGA-415 T/C polymorphism was an independent risk factor for the mortality of critically ill patients (odds ratio, 2.286; 95% confidence interval, 1.165-4.484; P=.016). CONCLUSIONS: Critically ill patients with CHGA-415 T/C mutant genotype display higher 30-day mortality than those with the wild-type group. CHGA-415 T/C polymorphism is an independent risk factor of poor prognosis in critically ill Chinese Han patients.

Dysregulation of MALAT1 and miR-619-5p as a prognostic indicator in advanced colorectal carcinoma.

The present study aimed to detect the expression of metastasis associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript 1 (MALAT1) and microRNA (miR)-619-5p in colorectal carcinoma (CRC), and to evaluate the significance of MALAT1 and miR-619-5p expression in the clinical diagnosis and prognosis of CRC. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to detect MALAT1 and miR-619-5p expression in 120 colorectal carcinoma and 120 adjacent normal tissue samples. The expression levels of MALAT1 and miR-619-5p were significantly different between colorectal carcinoma and adjacent normal tissues (P<0.05). MALAT1 exhibited an average 2.52-fold increase in colorectal adenoma when compared with adjacent normal tissues, while miR-619-5p exhibited an average 5.79-fold decrease in colorectal adenoma when compared with adjacent normal tissues. There was a significant difference between the MALAT1 expression in CRC tissues obtained from men and women (P=0.027), and in tumor-node-metastasis (TNM) stage II and stage III lesions (P=0.019). MALAT1 expression was associated with lymphovascular invasion (P=0.047) and perineural invasion (P=0.012). In addition, miR-619-5p expression was also significantly different between men and women (P=0.032), and between TNM stage II and stage III lesions (P=0.012). miR-619-5p expression was also associated with lymphovascular invasion (P=0.023) and perineural invasion (P=0.009). Patients with high expression of MALAT1 and low expression of miR-619-5p demonstrated significantly shorter disease-free survival (DFS) (P=0.002) and overall survival (OS) times (P=0.004) compared with patients with low MALAT1 expression and high miR-619-5p expression. Patients with perineural invasion demonstrated significantly shorter DFS (P=0.001) and OS times (P=0.003) compared with patients without perineural invasion. In addition, there was a negative correlation between MALAT1 expression and miR-619-5p expression (r=-0.415, P=0.004) in CRC tissues. In conclusion, MALAT1 and miR-619-5p have potential for the molecular diagnosis of CRC patients, and combined assaying of MALAT1 and miR-619-5p may improve the accuracy of the diagnosis of CRC and act as a good prognostic indicator in CRC patients.

CpG island methylator phenotype and Helicobacter pylori infection associated with gastric cancer.

AIM: To investigate the association between the CpG island methylator phenotype (CIMP) and serum Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) levels for clinical prediction of gastric cancer (GC) progression. METHODS: We analyzed the serum CIMP status of 75 patients with GC using a methylation marker panel and a methylation-specific polymerase chain reaction. Serum samples from 40 healthy persons were examined at the same time. The genes examined were APC, WIF-1, RUNX-3, DLC-1, SFRP-1, DKK and E-cad. H. pylori infection in serum was assayed with an anti-H. pylori immunoglobulin G antibody test and a rapid urease test. RESULTS: The frequencies of high-level methylation in GC tissues for the seven genes were: 48% for APC, 57.33% for WIF-1, 56% for RUNX-3, 50.67% for DLC-1, 52% for SFRP-1, 54.67% for DKK, and 48% for E-cad. The frequencies in GC serum were 30.67% for APC, 34.67% for WIF-1, 37.33% for RUNX-3, 29.33% for DLC-1, 33.33% for SFRP-1, 32% for DKK, and 26.67% for E-cad. CIMP+ (defined as ≥ 3 methylated genes) was associated with 47 (62.67%) GC tissue samples and 44 (58.67%) GC serum samples. CIMP+ was not associated with non-neoplastic mucosal tissues or the serum of healthy persons. Of the 75 GC cases, 51 (68%) were H. pylori+, and 24 (32%) were H. pylori-. Of the 51 H. pylori+ cases, 36 were CIMP+ and 15 were CIMP-. In contrast, for the 24 H. pylori- cases, 11 were CIMP+, and 13 were CIMP-. The difference was significant between the H. pylori+ and H. pylori- groups (χ(2) = 4.27, P < 0.05). Of the 51 H. pylori+ GC patients, 34 were CIMP+ and 17 were CIMP-, while among the 24 H. pylori- GC cases, 10 were CIMP+ and 14 were CIMP-. The difference was significant between the H. pylori+ and H. pylori- groups (χ(2) = 4.21, P < 0.05). A 2-year follow-up showed significant difference in the rates of metastasis and recurrence between H. pylori+/CIMP+ cases and the H. pylori+/CIMP- cases or CIMP- cases associated with H. pylori assayed in serum (P < 0.05). However, there were no significant differences in survival rates between the two groups. CONCLUSION: H. pylori+/CIMP+ cases are associated with higher rates of metastasis and recurrence than H. pylori+/CIMP- cases. Serum may be useful for examining CIMP status.

Cloning of the flap endonuclease-1 gene in Bombyx mori and identification of an antiapoptotic function.

The flap endonuclease-1 (FEN-1) gene is involved in DNA replication and repair, and it maintains genomic stability as well as the accuracy of DNA replication under normal growth conditions. However, FEN-1 also plays an important role in apoptosis and cancer development. We cloned the BmFEN-1 gene from Bombyx mori, which was 1343 bp in length and possessed an 1143 bp ORF (123-1266). It consists of seven introns and eight exons that encode a protein with 380 amino acids that has the typical XPG domain. The N-terminal motif is located at amino acids 95-105, and the proliferating cell nuclear antigen interaction motif is located at amino acids 337-344. RNA interference-mediated reduction of BmFEN-1 expression induced cell cycle arrest in S phase in BmE-SWU1 cells. These results suggest that BmFEN-1 can inhibit apoptosis and promote cell proliferation.

Oncometabolite 2-hydroxyglutarate is a competitive inhibitor of α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases.

IDH1 and IDH2 mutations occur frequently in gliomas and acute myeloid leukemia, leading to simultaneous loss and gain of activities in the production of α-ketoglutarate (α-KG) and 2-hydroxyglutarate (2-HG), respectively. Here we demonstrate that 2-HG is a competitive inhibitor of multiple α-KG-dependent dioxygenases, including histone demethylases and the TET family of 5-methlycytosine (5mC) hydroxylases. 2-HG occupies the same space as α-KG does in the active site of histone demethylases. Ectopic expression of tumor-derived IDH1 and IDH2 mutants inhibits histone demethylation and 5mC hydroxylation. In glioma, IDH1 mutations are associated with increased histone methylation and decreased 5-hydroxylmethylcytosine (5hmC). Hence, tumor-derived IDH1 and IDH2 mutations reduce α-KG and accumulate an α-KG antagonist, 2-HG, leading to genome-wide histone and DNA methylation alterations.