Emerging models for facilitating contact between people genetically related through donor conception: a preliminary analysis and discussion.

Previous research indicates interest among some donor-conceived people, donors and recipient parents in having contact. Outcomes of such contact appear largely, but not universally, positive. This paper seeks to understand better the characteristics of associated support services. Information gathered using the authors' direct experiences and professional and personal networks in different parts of the world indicates the emergence of four main groupings: (i) publically funded services outside of treatment centers; (ii) services provided by fertility treatment or gamete bank services; (iii) services provided privately by independent psychosocial or legal practitioners; and (4) services organized by offspring and/or recipient parents. Key operational features examined were: (i) who can access such services and when; (ii) what professional standards and funding are in place to provide them; and (iii) how 'matching' and contact processes are managed. Differences appear influenced variously by the needs of those directly affected, local policies, national legislation and the interests of the fertility services which recruit gamete donors and/or deliver donor conception treatments. The paper is intended to inform fuller debate about how best to meet the needs of those seeking information and contact, the implications for the way that fertility treatment and gametes donation services are currently provided and future research needs.

The use of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (4-9) analog ORG 2766 in autistic children: effects on the organization of behavior.

In a double-blind placebo-controlled crossover trial, 14 autistic children were treated with the neuropeptide ORG 2766, a synthetic analog of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) (4-9). ORG 2766 treatment (20 mg per day during 4 weeks) was associated with an increased amount and an improved quality of the social interaction of the autistic children with a familiar experimenter. These changes in interaction were clinically relevant. Following treatment with ORG 2766 gaze and smile behaviors of child and experimenter showed stronger temporal contingencies. Further, after ORG 2766, stereotypies were temporally disconnected from verbal initiatives. The data supported the notion of a stimulating effect of ORG 2766 on social interaction. The implications of these findings for the endogenous opioid theory of autism are discussed.

Increased rigidity with age in social behavior of Java-monkeys (Macaca fascicularis).

In this study we investigated the effect of aging on the structure of behavior of socially housed Java-monkeys. Indices of the sequential structure of an animal's own ongoing behavior and of its responses to behavior of other animals were calculated using an information statistic approach. These indices reflect information-processing abilities of an animal, as they represent the ability of an animal to adjust its behavior in response to actions by interaction partners. The influence of an animal's dominance history on the age-related changes was investigated as well. In the literature social subordinance in monkeys is generally associated with elevated levels of cortisol which, in turn, have been suggested to influence information processing abilities. In this study, old animals of low dominance history became more rigid in their own ongoing behavior, whereas old animals of high dominance history did not differ from young animals. The ability of old animals to maintain normal levels of predictability during social interactions declined, but only in social interactions with unfamiliar animals, such as young or unrelated animals. These results may explain the generally found social withdrawal of old non-human primates.

Aging, dominance history, and social behavior in Java-monkeys (Macaca fascicularis).

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of the dominance history of socially housed Java-monkeys on the aging process. In monkeys, social subordinance is generally associated with elevated levels of cortisol, which, in turn, have been suggested to influence cognitive decline. As cognitive skills are necessary for successful social life, we investigated the effect of old age in relation to the dominance history of the animals on their social behavior by comparing old females with their younger daughters. Old age, especially in combination with a history of low rank, led to a withdrawal from social interactions with unfamiliar animals and to a decrease in amounts of aggression received. Still, however, old animals showed an increase in behaviors associated with arousal. A reduced ability to deal with complex social interactions, caused by a decline in information processing abilities, is suggested as an explanation for these results.

Chronic stress in dogs subjected to social and spatial restriction. I. Behavioral responses.

Six weeks of social and spatial restriction were used as a model to induce chronic stress in Beagles. Behavioral and physiological measurements were performed during a period of enriched spacious outdoor housing in groups (GH) and during a subsequent period of solitary housing in small indoor kennels (IH). Behavioral parameters that may indicate chronic stress in dogs are reported. During IH, the dogs showed significantly (comparison-wise error rate <0.05) lower postures than during GH. IH induced enduring increments in frequencies of autogrooming, paw lifting, and vocalizing, and was associated with incidents of coprophagy and repetitive behavior. So far, we interpret the behavioral changes as signs of chronic stress. Relatively low levels of walking, digging, intentions to change from one state of locomotion to another, and increments in circling are conceived as obvious adaptations to the specific features of the IH system. By challenging the dogs outside their home kennel we tested whether the dogs' coping abilities were affected by IH. Dogs that were challenged were introduced into a novel environment, given the opportunity to escape from their home kennel, restrained, walked down an unfamiliar corridor, presented a novel object, exposed to loud noise, given food, or confronted with a conspecific. During IH, challenged dogs exhibited higher postures, showed more tail wagging, nosing, circling, urinating, and defecating, and changed more often from one state of locomotion (or posture) to another than during GH. These behavioral changes were observed across the different types of challenges, with the exception of the noise administration test. In the presence of conspecifics, the socially and spatially restricted male dogs behaved more dominantly and aggressive than during the time that they were kept in groups. Such behavior manifested as increased performances of raised hairs, growling, paw laying, and standing over. Both sexes showed increases in paw lifting, body shaking, ambivalent postures, intentions to change from one state of locomotion to another, and trembling in any of the challenges, excluding the walking down the corridor test. In short, during a variety of challenges, socially and spatially restricted dogs exhibited a heightened state of aggression, excitement, and uncertainty. Behavioral differences between dogs that had experienced pleasant and bad weather conditions during GH, suggested that "pleasant-weather individuals" had experienced early stress during the control period, and, as a result, responded to the subsequent period of IH differently. Regardless of the housing conditions, challenged bitches showed stronger indications of acute stress than male dogs. Gender did not affect the chronic stress responses to social and spatial restriction. A low posture and increased auto-grooming, paw lifting, vocalizing, repetitive behavior, and coprophagy may indicate chronic stress in dogs, and as such, can help to identify poor welfare. When challenged, chronically stressed dogs may show increased excitement, aggression, and uncertainty, but the nonspecificity of such emotional behavior will complicate its practical use with regard to the assessment of stress.

Chronic stress in dogs subjected to social and spatial restriction. II. Hormonal and immunological responses.

Two groups of beagles, accustomed to spacious group housing, were subjected to social and spatial restriction and studied for manifestations of chronic stress with a time interval of 7 weeks between the groups. The change from outside group housing (the control period) to individual housing in small indoor kennels resulted in sustained decreases in urinary adrenaline/creatinine and noradrenaline/creatinine ratios for the total group. Urinary dopamine/creatinine and noradrenaline/adrenaline ratios were statistically unaffected. Socially and spatially restricted dogs that had experienced pleasant weather during the control period showed (a) increased salivary and urinary cortisol concentrations, (b) a diminished responsiveness of the pituitary-adrenal axis to a sudden sound blast or exogenous CRH, (c) intact plasma ACTH and cortisol suppressions after dexamethasone administration, and (d) increased concanavalin A induced lymphocyte proliferations. When social and spatial restriction was preceded by a control period during which the weather was bad, these physiological responses were either augmented (lymphocyte proliferation), or offset (salivary and urinary cortisol), or directed oppositely (CRH-induced ACTH and cortisol responses). Together with the previously presented behavioral observations, these data suggest that bad weather conditions during spacious outdoor group housing induced early stress that attenuated the negative appraisal of the subsequent period of social and spatial restriction. In comparison to male dogs, bitches showed increased HPA responses to a sound blast or exogenous CRH. Their increased attenuations of the ACTH and cortisol responses to CRH after 5 weeks of restricted housing indicates that bitches are not only more susceptible to acute stress, but also to chronic housing stress. It is concluded that the quality of circumstances preceding a period of affected well-being determines the magnitude and even the direction of the behavioral and physiological stress responses. Basal salivary and urinary cortisol measurements are useful for the assessment of chronic stress, and of poor welfare in dogs. The use of urinary catecholamine, peripheral leucocyte, and lymphocyte proliferation measures requires further investigation.

Behavioral aspects of puberty in group-living stumptail monkeys (Macaca arctoides).

Behavioral changes before and around the time of puberty were studied in a longitudinal manner in male and female stumptail monkeys. Around the time of testicular descent (mean age: 3.3 years) males started to become more aggressive towards adult males. Within two years following testicular descent males rose in rank with the support of others and reached stable (sub)top positions in the dominance hierarchy. In the female rank-stabilization took place gradually between one year before and two years after first ovulation (mean age: 3.7 years). Copulatory activity began about two (in females) to two-and-a-half years (in males) before reproductive capacity was attained. Female copulatory activity began to rise about six months before first ovulation, when they started to copulate with adult males. In males copulatory frequency rose sharply between six and twelve months prior to testicular descent. Until a few months after testicular descent males could copulate openly in the group without interruption; from about 1 year following testicular descent virtually all copulations had to take place surreptitiously to avoid interruption by higher ranking adult males. It is postulated that this decreasing tolerance of adults may contribute to the process of peripheralization and migration of young adult males which occur in free ranging macaque groups.

[Pain, perception and expression: an ethological perspective]. / Pijn, gewaarwording en expressie: een ethologische beschouwing.

To better understand the pain phenomenon, its occurrence and its functional significance, pain should be considered as a part of a behaviour system which activates two functions: defensive and aversive behaviour on the one hand, and recuperative behaviour on the other. In the former especially the more short-lasting primary pain plays a role, in recuperative behaviour more chronic secondary pain is of importance. Pain should not be seen primarily as the unconditioned stimulus in the fear system, but as one of the independent behaviour systems. Within the framework of this ethological model both the facilitative and inhibitive influences which 'pain' and 'fear' exert on each other can be more satisfactorily explained. We assume that animals feel pain on the grounds of the so-called 'analogy decision'. The only objective measure, of course, is the behaviour which is observable as a consequence of harmful influences. This behaviour varies greatly with the nature and localisation of the harmful effects; the variation is dependent on the degree to which behavioural responses can be effective in avoiding damage and promoting recovery, and also on the animal species considered. In some species expressions of pain have been selected for and adapted as social signals which elicit consideration, help and care of conspecifics. In other species social and other factors have precluded stimulation of such a development. All this means that the extent to which spontaneous behavioural expressions can serve as valid pain measures is a complicated question; it leads to consideration of the feasibility of more meaningful experimental measurement methods.

Homologizing primate facial displays: a critical review of methods.

The applicability of previously established criteria for identifying homologous behavioural traits to the ritualized facial displays of primates is discussed and illustrated with several examples. (1) Homologizing of facial displays is based on (a) their stereotypy, (b) their nature as compounds of individual facial actions, and--to a lesser extent--(c) the homology of the muscle substrate by which the displays are accomplished. (2) Sequences of gradually changing displays ('Merkmalsreihen') can be constructed by considering related extant species, different ontogenetic stages, and variation and blends of the underlying motivations. (3) The pattern of distribution of the display in the primate phylogenetic tree reflects the direction of changes ('Lesrichtung'), and thus yields insights into the phylogeny of the displays. (4) The behavioural context of a display reflects its motivational embedding and is inseparable from its function. Therefore the behavioural context does not differentiate between similarities due to common descent and similarities due to identical function.

Age-sex class differences in the positional behaviour of the Sumatran orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus abelii) in the Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia.

During a three-year field study of the socio-ecology of Sumatran orang-utans, their use of the canopy was investigated in the Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia. This paper concerns the positional behaviour of different age-sex classes of orang-utans. Adolescents and females with infants differed significantly from an adult male in the following respects: the use of locomotion types (more 'quadrumanous scrambling' and perhaps also 'quadrupedal walking' and less 'tree swaying'); substrate use during resting, and travelling and resting heights. We suggest that large body size restricts the travel route options in higher forest strata and necessitates the use of the lower stratum. Here, 'tree swaying' is an efficient method of progression, particularly for heavy animals. Mothers with infants are forced to travel in the lower zones as well. The fact that they return to a greater heights when they go to rest might suggest that they travel lower in spite of a greater predation risk.

Meat-eating by adult female Sumatran orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus abelii).

Information about meat-eating behavior by wild orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) is scant. The first article about such a case dates from 1981. Since 1989, seven incidents of adult female Sumatran orangutans eating slow lorises (Nycticebus coucang) have been witnessed. Three females from two study sites were involved. In three cases the females were seen catching the prey. There are too few cases to conclude whether this behavior is typically female.

Types of dominance in a chimpanzee colony.

This study examines to what extent the concept of dominance can be used to describe the social structure of a group of semi-free-living chimpanzees. 15 behavioural variables, based on agonistic, competitive and affinitive behaviour patterns, have been compared with respect to the interindividual directions in which they occurred. In this analysis use was made of indices that reflect the position an individual occupies in the relationship structure. These indices were calculated per individual for all variables and subjected to factor analysis and cluster analysis. As a result, 13 of the variables could be grouped in three categories which have been labelled: (1) agonistic dominance; (2) bluff dominance, and (3) competitive dominance. Whereas the top positions in the hierarchies based on the first two closely related types of dominance were occupied by the adult males, the hierarchy based on the third type was headed by several adult females.

An ethological study on behavioural differences between hyperactive, aggressive, combined hyperactive/aggressive and control children.

Frequencies and sequential patterns of behaviour elements in pure hyperactive (N = 12), pure aggressive (N = 13), combined hyperactive/aggressive (N = 15) and control children (N = 10) were recorded in a semistructured playroom session and subsequently compared. The samples were age- and IQ-matched. In an overall MANOVA a significant main effect for hyperactivity but not for aggression was found. The hyperactive children were characterized particularly by differences in squirming and changes in sitting. The sequential patterning of their behaviour revealed weaker temporal contingencies between their behaviour and the conversational speech of the experimenter than in the case of the nonhyperactive (aggressive and control) children. This may be explained by deficits in social attention in the hyperactive groups.

Behavior of conduct disordered children in interaction with each other and with normal peers.

This study investigated the behavior of children with conduct disorder or oppositional defiant disorder (CD/ODD) in interaction with each other and with normal control (NC) children in a semi-standardized setting over a period of 25 minutes. This short time turned out to be sufficient to demonstrate the behavioral manifestations of CD/ODD in children's interactions with peers. In addition, the role of the interactional partner on antisocial behaviour of CD/ODD children became apparent.

Differences in the structure of social behaviour of autistic children and non-autistic retarded controls.

Social and task-oriented behaviours of autistic children were compared to those of individually age- and IQ-matched non-autistic retarded controls. Autistic children showed deficits in visual reciprocity, in indicating joint attention and referential head gestures, and in the integration of gaze and gestures when reacting to tasks. The findings confirmed the notion of social and pragmatic communicative deficits in autism. The implications of these findings for theories of social behaviour in autism (avoidance, facial perception, theory of mind) are discussed.

Deficits in social behavior in autism and their modification by a synthetic adrenocorticotrophic hormone (4-9) analog.

When charting the structure of the social behavior of autistic children by means of an ethologically analyzed playroom session, deficits appeared in the reciprocity of eye-contact and in the location of verbal initiatives. These deficits in social behavior were beneficially influenced by treatment with the adrenocorticotrophic hormone (4-9) analog ORG 2766.

Differences between conduct disordered and normal control children in their tendencies to escalate or neutralize conflicts when interacting with normal peers.

The behavior of conduct disordered (CD) children was compared with normal control (NC) children in interaction with normal peers. Dyads consisting of a) a CD child and a normal peer and b) an NC child and the same normal peer as in a) were observed. CD boys were less able than NC boys to neutralize incipient conflicts. Hitherto most behavioral studies of CD boys have concentrated on their tendency to escalate conflicts but have paid very little attention to their difficulty in neutralizing conflicts.

Life history of wild Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii).

We present life history data on wild Sumatran orangutans gleaned from a 32-year and a 5.5-year study. Estimated age at first reproduction was 15.4 years. At 9.3 years, the average interbirth interval for this population is the longest ever recorded for any great ape population, significantly longer than that of a Bornean orangutan population. We find that age-specific mortality of Sumatran orangutans does not differ between sexes and is significantly lower than that of wild chimpanzees. We conclude that orangutan life history is the slowest among extant great apes. In accordance with their slow life history, longevity in the wild is estimated to be at least 58 years for males and at least 53 for females. We find no evidence for menopause. These data suggest that compared to the ancestral state, humans have undergone less of an increase in longevity than commonly assumed, and have experienced selection on earlier cessation of reproduction.