Oral dydrogesterone versus micronized vaginal progesterone for luteal phase support: a double-blind crossover study investigating pharmacokinetics and impact on the endometrium.

STUDY QUESTION: How do plasma progesterone (P) and dydrogesterone (D) concentrations together with endometrial histology, transcriptomic signatures, and immune cell composition differ when oral dydrogesterone (O-DYD) or micronized vaginal progesterone (MVP) is used for luteal phase support (LPS)? SUMMARY ANSWER: Although after O-DYD intake, even at steady-state, plasma D and 20αdihydrodydrogesterone (DHD) concentrations spiked in comparison to P concentrations, a similar endometrial signature was observed by histological and transcriptomic analysis of the endometrium. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: O-DYD for LPS has been proven to be noninferior compared to MVP in two phase III randomized controlled trials. Additionally, a combined individual participant data and aggregate data meta-analysis indicated that a higher pregnancy rate and live birth rate may be obtained in women receiving O-DYD versus MVP for LPS in fresh IVF/ICSI cycles. Little data are available on the pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles of O-DYD versus MVP and their potential molecular differences at the level of the reproductive organs, particularly at the endometrial level. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: Thirty oocyte donors were planned to undergo two ovarian stimulation (OS) cycles with dual triggering (1.000 IU hCG + 0.2 mg triptorelin), each followed by 1 week of LPS: O-DYD or MVP, in a randomized, cross-over, double-blind, double-dummy fashion. On both the first and eighth days of LPS, serial blood samples upon first dosing were harvested for plasma D, DHD, and P concentration analyses. On Day 8 of LPS, an endometrial biopsy was collected for histologic examination, transcriptomics, and immune cell analysis. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: All oocyte donors were <35 years old, had regular menstrual cycles, no intrauterine contraceptive device, anti-Müllerian hormone within normal range and a BMI ≤29 kg/m2. OS was performed on a GnRH antagonist protocol followed by dual triggering (1.000 IU hCG + 0.2 mg triptorelin) as soon as ≥3 follicles of 20 mm were present. Following oocyte retrieval, subjects initiated LPS consisting of MVP 200 mg or O-DYD 10 mg, both three times daily. D, DHD, and P plasma levels were measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Histological assessment was carried out using the Noyes criteria. Endometrial RNA-sequencing was performed for individual biopsies and differential gene expression was analyzed. Endometrial single-cell suspensions were created followed by flow cytometry for immune cell typing. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: A total of 21 women completed the entire study protocol. Subjects and stimulation characteristics were found to be similar between groups. Following the first dose of O-DYD, the average observed maximal plasma concentrations (Cmax) for D and DHD were 2.9 and 77 ng/ml, respectively. The Cmax for D and DHD was reached after 1.5 and 1.6 h (=Tmax), respectively. On the eighth day of LPS, the first administration of that day gave rise to a Cmax of 3.6 and 88 ng/ml for D and DHD, respectively. For both, the observed Tmax was 1.5 h. Following the first dose of MVP, the Cmax for P was 16 ng/ml with a Tmax of 4.2 h. On the eighth day of LPS, the first administration of that day showed a Cmax for P of 21 ng/ml with a Tmax of 7.3 h. All 42 biopsies showed endometrium in the secretory phase. The mean cycle day was 23.9 (±1.2) in the O-DYD group versus 24.0 (±1.3) in the MVP group. RNA-sequencing did not reveal significantly differentially expressed genes between samples of both study groups. The average Euclidean distance between samples following O-DYD was significantly lower than following MVP (respectively 12.1 versus 18.8, Mann-Whitney P = 6.98e-14). Immune cell profiling showed a decrease of CD3 T-cell, γδ T-cell, and B-cell frequencies after MVP treatment compared to O-DYD, while the frequency of natural killer (NK) cells was significantly increased. LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: The main reason for caution is the small sample size, given the basic research nature of the project. The plasma concentrations are best estimates as this was not a formal PK study. Whole tissue bulk RNA-sequencing has been performed not correcting for bias caused by different tissue compositions across biopsies. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: This is the first study comparing O-DYD/MVP, head-to-head, in a randomized design on a molecular level in IVF/ICSI. Plasma serum concentrations suggest that administration frequency is important, in addition to dose, specifically for O-DYD showing a rapid clearance. The molecular endometrial data are overall comparable and thus support the previously reported noninferior reproductive outcomes for O-DYD as compared to MVP. Further research is needed to explore the smaller intersample distance following O-DYD and the subtle changes detected in endometrial immune cells. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): Not related to this work, C.Bl. has received honoraria for lectures, presentations, manuscript writing, educational events, or scientific advice from Abbott, Ferring, Organon, Cooper Surgical, Gedeon-Richter, IBSA, and Merck. H.T. has received honoraria for lectures, presentations, manuscript writing, educational events, or scientific advice from Abbott, Ferring, Cooper Surgical, Gedeon-Richter, Cook, and Goodlife. S.M. has received honoraria for lectures, presentations, educational events, or scientific advice from Abbott, Cooper Surgical, Gedeon-Richter, IBSA, and Merck and Oxolife. G.G. has received honoraria for lectures, presentations, educational events, or scientific advice from Merck, MSD, Organon, Ferring, Theramex, Gedeon-Richter, Abbott, Biosilu, ReprodWissen, Obseva, PregLem, Guerbet, Cooper, Igyxos, and OxoLife. S.V.-S. is listed as inventor on two patents (WO2019115755A1 and WO2022073973A1), which are not related to this work. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: EUDRACT 2018-000105-23.

Progestin primed ovarian stimulation using dydrogesterone from day 7 of the cycle onwards in oocyte donation cycles: a longitudinal study.

RESEARCH QUESTION: Does a progestin-primed ovarian stimulation (PPOS) protocol with dydrogesterone from cycle day 7 yield similar outcomes compared with a gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist protocol in the same oocyte donors? DESIGN: This retrospective longitudinal study included 128 cycles from 64 oocyte donors. All oocyte donors had the same type of gonadotrophin and daily dose in both stimulation cycles. The primary outcome was the number of cumulus-oocyte complexes (COC) retrieved. RESULTS: The number of COC retrieved (mean ± SD 19.7 ± 10.8 versus 19.2 ± 8.3; P = 0.5) and the number of metaphase II oocytes (15.5 ± 8.4 versus 16.2 ± 7.0; P = 0.19) were similar for the PPOS and GnRH antagonist protocols, respectively. The duration of stimulation (10.5 ± 1.5 days versus 10.8 ± 1.5 days; P = 0.14) and consumption of gonadotrophins (2271.9 ± 429.7 IU versus 2321.5 ± 403.4 IU; P = 0.2) were also comparable, without any cases of premature ovulation. Nevertheless, there was a significant difference in the total cost of medication per cycle: €898.3 ± 169.9 for the PPOS protocol versus €1196.4 ± 207.5 (P < 0.001) for the GnRH antagonist protocol. CONCLUSION: The number of oocytes retrieved and number of metaphase II oocytes were comparable in both stimulation protocols, with the advantage of significant cost reduction in favour of the PPOS protocol compared with the GnRH antagonist protocol. No cases of premature ovulation were observed, even when progestin was started later in the stimulation.

The combination of dydrogesterone and micronized vaginal progesterone can render serum progesterone level measurements on the day of embryo transfer and rescue attempts unnecessary in an HRT FET cycle.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the role of serum progesterone (P4) on the day of embryo transfer (ET) when dydrogesterone (DYD) and micronized vaginal progesterone (MVP) are combined as luteal phase support (LPS) in a hormone replacement therapy (HRT) frozen ET (FET) cycles. METHODS: Retrospective study, including single euploid HRT FET cycles with DYD and MVP as LPS and P4 measurement on ET day. Initially, patients with P4 levels < 10 ng/ml increased MVP to 400 mg/day; this "rescue" was abandoned later. RESULTS: 560 cycles of 507 couples were included. In 275 women, serum P4 level was < 10 ng/ml on the ET day. Among those with low P4 levels, MVP dose remained unchanged in 65 women (11.6%) and was increased in 210 women (37.5%). Women with P4 levels ≥ 10 ng/ml continued LPS without modification. Overall pregnancy rates in these groups were 61.5% (40/65), 54.8% (115/210), and 48.4% (138/285), respectively (p = n.s.). Association of serum P4 levels with ongoing pregnancy rates was analyzed in women without any additional MVP regardless of serum P4 levels (n = 350); multivariable analysis (adjusted for age, BMI, embryo quality (EQ)) did not show a significant association of serum P4 levels with OPR (OR 0.96, 95% CI 0.90-1.02; p = 0.185). Using inverse probability treatment weights, regression analysis in the weighted sample showed no significant association between P4 treatment groups and OP. Compared to fair EQ, the transfer of good EQ increased (OR 1.61, 95% CI 1.22-2.15; p = 0.001) and the transfer of a poor EQ decreased the odds of OP (OR 0.73, 95% CI 0.55-0.97; p = 0.029). CONCLUSION: In HRT FET cycle, using LPS with 300 mg/day MVP and 30 mg/day DYD, it appears that serum P4 measurement and increase of MVP in patients with P4 < 10 ng/ml are not necessary.

Comparison between oral dydrogesterone versus micronized vaginal progesterone gel in clinical outcome within the first HRT-FET cycle: a retrospective analysis.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to compare the clinical efficacy of oral dydrogesterone and micronized vaginal progesterone (MVP) gel during the first HRT-FET cycle. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study based on a total of 344 women undergoing their first HRT-FET cycles without Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone agonist (GnRH-a) pretreatment was conducted. All the cycles were allocated to two groups in the reproductive medical center at the University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Hospital. One group (n = 193) received oral dydrogesterone 30 mg/d before embryo transfer, while the other group (n = 151) received MVP gel 180 mg/d. RESULTS: The demographics and baseline characteristics of two groups were comparable. We found no statistically significant difference in live birth rate (24.35% vs. 31.13%, P = 0.16), clinical pregnancy rate (34.72% vs. 36.42%, P = 0.74), embryo implantation rate (25.09% vs. 28.36%, P = 0.43), positive pregnancy rate (42.49% vs 38.41%, P = 0.45), miscarriage rate (9.33% vs 3.97%, P = 0.05), or ectopic pregnancy rate (0.52% vs. 0.66%, P = 0.86) between the oral dydrogesterone group and MVP gel group. In the multivariate logistic regression analysis for covariates, medication used for luteal support was not associated with live birth rate (OR = 0.73, 95% CI: 0.32-1.57, P = 0.45). And the different luteal support medication did not have a significant positive association with the live birth rate in the cycles with day 2 embryo transferred (OR = 1.39, 95% CI:0.66-2.39, P = 0.39) and blastocyst transferred (OR = 1.31 95% CI:0.64-2.69, P = 0.46). CONCLUSION: 30 mg/d oral dydrogesterone and 180 mg/d MVP gel revealed similar reproductive outcomes in HRT-FET cycles in the study.

A comparison of the effects of oral dydrogesterone and levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device on quality of life and sexual function in patients with abnormal uterine bleeding.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of cyclic oral dydrogesterone treatment and levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device (LNG_IUD) on quality of life (QoL) and sexual function in patients diagnosed with abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB). STUDY DESIGN: The study was conducted at the University of Health Sciences Turkey Health Istanbul Kanuni Sultan Süleyman Training and Research Hospital, on 171 sexually active patients, aged 18-45, who were under a minimum of 6 months of treatment for AUB. 85 patients were treated with oral cyclic dydrogesterone, and 86 patients received LNG-IUD. Following a minimum of 6 months of treatment, these patients were recruited to the study and were asked to complete a 36-Item Short Form Survey (SF-36) and the Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI). RESULTS: When the FSFI scores of the patients were compared, it was observed that the total FSFI score was significantly higher in the cyclic dydrogesterone group (p < 0.05). Likewise, it was observed that sexual desire, arousal, and lubrication domains were significantly higher in the cyclic dydrogesterone group (p < 0.05). No significant differences were found between the treatment groups in 7 out of the 8 dimensions of SF-36. The energy/vitality dimension was found to be significantly higher in the cyclic dydrogesterone group. CONCLUSION: Total FSFI score, as well as sexual desire, arousal, and lubrication scores, were significantly higher in the cyclic dydrogesterone group compared to the LNG-IUD group indicating that cyclic dydrogesterone has a more positive impact on sexual function when compared to LNG-IUD.

Quantitative analyses of cytokine profiles reveal hormone-mediated modulation of cytokine profiles in recurrent spontaneous miscarriage.

PURPOSE: Cytokines play important roles in pregnancy complications. Some hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, and dydrogesterone have been shown to alter cytokine profiles. Understanding how cytokine profiles are affected by these hormones is therefore an important step towards immunomodulatory therapies for pregnancy complications. We analyse previously published data on the effects of estrogen, progesterone, and dydrogesterone on cytokine balances in women having recurrent spontaneous miscarriages. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Levels of eight cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, IL-13, IL-17, IL-23, TNF-α) from n = 22 women presenting unexplained recurrent spontaneous miscarriages were studied. Cytokine values were recorded after in vitro exposure of peripheral blood cells to estrogen, progesterone, and dydrogesterone. We expand on earlier analysis of the dataset by employing different statistical techniques including effect sizes for individual cytokine values, a more powerful statistical test, and adjusting p-values for multiple comparisons. We employ multivariate analysis methods, including to determine the relative magnitude of the effects of the hormone therapies on cytokines. A new statistical method is introduced based on pairwise distances able to accommodate complex relations in cytokine profiles. RESULTS: We report several statistically significant differences in individual cytokine values between the control group and each hormone treated group, with estrogen affecting the fewest cytokines, and progesterone and dydrogesterone both affecting seven out of eight cytokines. Exposure to estrogen produces no large effects sizes however, while IFN-γ and IL-17 show large effect sizes for both progesterone and dydrogesterone, among other cytokines. Our new method for identifying which collections (i.e. subsets) of cytokines best distinguish contrasting groups identifies IFN-γ, IL-10 and IL-23 as especially noteworthy for both progesterone and dydrogesterone treatments. CONCLUSIONS: While some statistically significant differences in cytokine levels after exposure to estrogen are found, these have small effect sizes and are unlikely to be clinically relevant. Progesterone and dydrogesterone both induce statistically significant and large effect-size differences in cytokine levels, hence therapy with these two progestogens is more likely to be clinically relevant. Univariate and multivariate methods for identifying cytokine importances provide insight into which groups of cytokines are most affected and in what ways by therapies.

Individualized luteal phase support using additional oral dydrogesterone in artificially prepared frozen embryo transfer cycles: is it beneficial?

RESEARCH QUESTION: Does additional supplementation with oral dydrogesterone improve reproductive outcomes in patients with low serum progesterone concentrations on the day of frozen embryo transfer (FET) after artificial (HRT) endometrial preparation? DESIGN: Retrospective, single-centre cohort study including 694 unique patients performing single blastocyst transfer in an HRT cycle. For luteal phase support, intravaginal micronized vaginal progesterone (MVP, 400 mg twice daily) was administered. Serum progesterone concentrations were assessed prior to FET and outco-mes were compared among patients with normal serum progesterone (≥8.8 ng/ml) continuing the routine protocol and patients with low serum progesterone (<8.8 ng/ml) who received additional oral dydrogesterone supplementation (10 mg three times daily) from the day after FET onwards. Primary outcome was live birth rate (LBR), with a multivariate regression model correcting for relevant confounders. RESULTS: Normal serum progesterone concentrations were observed in 547/694 (78.8%) of patients who continued only MVP as planned, whereas low (<8.8 ng/ml) serum progesterone concentrations were detected in 147/694 (21.2%) patients who received additional oral dydrogesterone supplementation on top of MVP from the day after FET onwards. LBR was comparable between both groups: 37.8% for MVP-only versus 38.8% for MVP+OD (P = 0.84). The multivariate logistic regression model indicated that LBR was not significantly associated with the investigated approaches (adjusted odds ratio 1.01, 95% confidence interval 0.69-1.47, P = 0.97). CONCLUSIONS: The current findings suggest that additional oral dydrogesterone supplementation in patients with low serum progesterone concentrations at the moment of transfer could have the potential to rescue reproductive outcomes in HRT-FET cycles. This field of research, however, remains hampered by the absence of randomized controlled trials.

Progestogens for prevention of luteinising hormone (LH) surge in women undergoing controlled ovarian hyperstimulation as part of an assisted reproductive technology (ART) cycle.

BACKGROUND: Currently, gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) analogues are used to prevent premature ovulation in ART cycles. However, their costs remain high, the route of administration is invasive and has some adverse effects. Oral progestogens could be cheaper and effective to prevent a premature LH surge. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effectiveness and safety of using progestogens to avoid spontaneous ovulation in women undergoing controlled ovarian hyperstimulation (COH). SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Gynaecology and Fertility Group trials register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase and PsycINFO in Dec 2021. We contacted study authors and experts to identify additional studies. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) that included progestogens for ovulation inhibition in women undergoing controlled ovarian hyperstimulation (COH). DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: We used standard methodological procedures recommended by Cochrane, including the risk of bias (RoB) assessment. The primary review outcomes were live birth rate (LBR) and oocyte pick-up cancellation rate (OPCR). Secondary outcomes were clinical pregnancy rate (CPR), cumulative pregnancy, miscarriage rate (MR), multiple pregnancies, LH surge, total and MII oocytes, days of stimulation, dose of gonadotropins, and moderate/severe ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (OHSS) rate. The primary analyses were restricted to studies at overall low and some concerns RoB, and sensitivity analysis included all studies. We used the GRADE approach to assess the certainty of evidence. MAIN RESULTS: We included 14 RCTs (2643 subfertile women undergoing ART, 47 women used oocyte freezing for fertility preservation and 534 oocyte donors). Progestogens versus GnRH antagonists We are very uncertain of the effect of medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) 10 mg compared with cetrorelix on the LBR in poor responders (odds ratio (OR) 1.25, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.73 to 2.13, one RCT, N = 340, very-low-certainty evidence), suggesting that if the chance of live birth following GnRH antagonists is assumed to be 18%, the chance following MPA would be 14% to 32%. There may be little or no difference in OPCR between progestogens and GnRH antagonists, but due to wide Cs (CIs), we are uncertain (OR 0.92, 95%CI 0.42 to 2.01, 3 RCTs, N = 648, I² = 0%, low-certainty evidence), changing the chance of OPCR from 4% with progestogens to 2% to 8%. Given the imprecision found, no conclusions can be retrieved on CPR and MR. Low-quality evidence suggested that using micronised progesterone in normo-responders may increase by 2 to 6 the MII oocytes in comparison to GnRH antagonists. There may be little or no differences in gonadotropin doses. Progestogens versus GnRH agonists Results were uncertain for all outcomes comparing progestogens with GnRH agonists. One progestogen versus another progestogen The analyses comparing one progestogen versus another progestogen for LBR did not meet our criteria for primary analyses. The OPCR was probably lower in the MPA 10 mg in comparison to MPA 4 mg (OR 2.27, 95%CI 0.90 to 5.74, one RCT, N = 300, moderate-certainty evidence), and MPA 4 mg may be lower than micronised progesterone 100 mg, but due to wide CI, we are uncertain of the effect (OR 0.81, 95%CI 0.43 to 1.53, one RCT, N = 300, low-certainty evidence), changing the chance of OPCR from 5% with MPA 4 mg to 5% to22%, and from 17% with micronised progesterone 100 mg to 8% to 24%. When comparing dydrogesterone 20 mg to MPA, the OPCR is probably lower in the dydrogesterone group in comparison to MPA 10 mg (OR 1.49, 95%CI 0.80 to 2.80, one RCT, N = 520, moderate-certainty evidence), and it may be lower in dydrogesterone group in comparison to MPA 4 mg but due to wide confidence interval, we are uncertain of the effect (OR 1.19, 95%CI 0.61 to 2.34, one RCT, N = 300, low-certainty evidence), changing the chance of OPCR from 7% with dydrogesterone 20 to 6-17%, and in MPA 4 mg from 12% to 8% to 24%. When comparing dydrogesterone 20 mg to micronised progesterone 100 mg, the OPCR is probably lower in the dydrogesterone group (OR 1.54, 95%CI 0.94 to 2.52, two RCTs, N=550, I² = 0%, moderate-certainty evidence), changing OPCR from 11% with dydrogesterone to 10% to 24%. We are very uncertain of the effect in normo-responders of micronised progesterone 100 mg compared with micronised progesterone 200 mg on the OPCR (OR 0.35, 95%CI 0.09 to 1.37, one RCT, N = 150, very-low-certainty evidence). There is probably little or no difference in CPR and MR between MPA 10 mg and dydrogesterone 20 mg. There may be little or no differences in MII oocytes and gonadotropins doses. No cases of moderate/severe OHSS were reported in most of the groups in any of the comparisons. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Little or no differences in LBR may exist when comparing MPA 4 mg with GnRH agonists in normo-responders. OPCR may be slightly increased in the MPA 4 mg group, but MPA 4 mg reduces the doses of gonadotropins in comparison to GnRH agonists. Little or no differences in OPCR may exist between progestogens and GnRH antagonists in normo-responders and donors. However, micronised progesterone could improve by 2 to 6 MII oocytes. When comparing one progestogen to another, dydrogesterone suggested slightly lower OPCR than MPA and micronised progesterone, and MPA suggested slightly lower OPCR than the micronised progesterone 100 mg. Finally, MPA 10 mg suggests a lower OPCR than MPA 4 mg. There is uncertainty regarding the rest of the outcomes due to imprecision and no solid conclusions can be drawn.

Evaluation of allylestrenol for clinical pregnancies in patients treated with assisted reproductive techniques: a retrospective, propensity score matched, observational study.

BACKGROUND: Allylestrenol is an oral progestogen being increasingly used for luteal phase support in assisted reproductive techniques. However, evidence of the clinical efficacy of allylestrenol in luteal phase support is lacking. Dydrogesterone is a representative drug used for luteal phase support, the efficacy of which has been clinically confirmed. As such, we aimed to compare the effects of allylestrenol with the standard dydrogesterone on clinical pregnancy rates and pregnancy outcomes. METHODS: This retrospective study included 3375 assisted reproductive technique cycles using either allylestrenol or dydrogesterone between January 2015 and March 2020. Patients using either allylestrenol or dydrogesterone were matched in a 1:1 ratio using propensity scores. The primary outcomes were clinical pregnancy rate and pregnancy outcomes. RESULTS: No significant difference was found in the clinical pregnancy rate (53.5% vs. 53.2%, P = 0.928) and pregnancy outcomes (all P > 0.05) between allylestrenol and dydrogesterone. Compared with dydrogesterone, the use of allylestrenol significantly reduced the rate of biochemical pregnancies (6.4% vs. 11.8%, P < 0.001) and multiple gestation rate (16.8% vs. 26.3%, P = 0.001). Moreover, endometrial thickness, morphology, and blood flow were significantly improved by allylestrenol treatment (all P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Allylestrenol exhibited similar effects on clinical pregnancy rates and pregnancy outcomes as dydrogesterone. Moreover, allylestrenol can significantly reduce the biochemical pregnancy rate and improve the endometrial receptivity.

Association between serum progesterone levels on the day of frozen-thawed embryo transfer and pregnancy outcomes after artificial endometrial preparation.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have examined that a range of optimal serum P level during the implantation period was associated with optimal live birth rates. However, those results obtained with vaginal or intramuscular route of progesterone administration for luteal phase support (LPS) alone. Is there a relationship between the serum progesterone (P) on the day of frozen-thawed embryo transfer (FET) with the likelihood of a live birth (LB) in artificial cycles (AC) when using a combination of oral dydrogesterone and vaginal progesterone for LPS? METHODS: This was a retrospective study of 3659 FET cycles with artificial endometrial preparation in a Chinese tertiary-care academic medical centre from January 2015 to February 2017. Endometrial preparation was performed using estradiol (E2) valerate (Fematon-red tablets) 8 mg/d beginning on day 3 of the cycle, followed by administration of P both orally (8 mg/d Fematon-yellow tablets) and vaginally (400 mg/d; Utrogestan). The primary endpoint was live birth rate (LBR). The association between the serum P level on the embryo transfer day and pregnancy outcomes was evaluated by univariable and multivariable logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: The LBRs according to the serum P quartiles were as follows: Q1: 35.7%; Q2: 37.4%; Q3: 39.1% and Q4: 38.9%. Logistic regression analysis showed that the odds of a LB were not significantly different between the low (P < 7.9 ng/mL) and high (P ≥ 7.9 ng/mL) progesterone groups before or after adjustment (crude OR = 0.89, 95% CI: 0.76-1.04; adjusted OR = 0.89, 95% CI: 0.75-1.04). CONCLUSION: The present study suggests that the serum P levels on the day of embryo transfer (ET) do not correlate with the likelihood of a LB in artificial cycles when using a combination of oral dydrogesterone and vaginal progesterone for luteal phase support.

Effects of two different types of luteal support on pregnancy outcomes following antagonist fresh embryo transfer: a retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Only a small number of studies have reported the use of progesterone vaginal gel in combination with dydrogesterone as part of the antagonist protocol for fresh embryo transfer. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the effects of two types of luteal support on pregnancy outcomes following the antagonist protocol for fresh embryo transfer. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of clinical data from infertile patients who underwent fresh embryo transfer via the antagonist protocol (2785 cycles) between February and July 2019 and between February and July 2021 at the Peking University Third Hospital Reproductive Medicine Centre. According to the luteal support received, the cycle groups were divided into the progesterone vaginal gel group (single medication or VP group; 1170 cycles) and the progesterone vaginal gel plus dydrogesterone group (combination medication or DYD + VP group; 1615 cycles). After propensity score matching, the clinical pregnancy, ongoing pregnancy, early miscarriage, and ectopic pregnancy rates were compared between the two groups. RESULTS: In total, 1057 pairs of cycles were successfully matched via propensity scores. The clinical and ongoing pregnancy rates in the combination medication group were significantly higher than those in the single medication group (P < 0.05), whereas no significant differences were noted in the early miscarriage and ectopic pregnancy rates between the two groups (both P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Combined luteal support after the antagonist protocol is preferred for patients undergoing fresh cycle embryo transfer.

Impact of biomimetic electrical stimulation combined with Femoston on pregnancy rate and endometrium characteristics in infertility patients with thin endometrium: a prospective observational study.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the impact of biomimetic electrical stimulation combined with Femoston (estradiol tablets/estradiol and dydrogesterone tablets) on pregnancy rate and endometrium characteristics (endometrial thickness and type) in patients with infertility and a thin endometrium. METHODS: This prospective study enrolled patients with infertility and a thin endometrium admitted to Urumqi Maternal and Child Health Hospital of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, Urumqi, China, between May 2021 and January 2022. The patients received Femoston alone (Femoston group) or Femoston combined with biomimetic electrical stimulation (electrotherapy group). The outcomes were the pregnancy rate and endometrium characteristics. RESULTS: Finally, 120 patients were enrolled (60/group). Before treatment, the endometrial thickness (p = 0.515) and the percentages of patients with endometrial types A + B and C (p = 0.769) were comparable between the two groups. After treatment, the endometrium of the patients in the electrotherapy group was thicker than those in the Femoston group (6.48 ± 0.96 mm vs. 5.27 ± 0.51 mm, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the percentages of patients with endometrial types A + B and C in the electrotherapy group were larger than in the Femoston group (p = 0.027). In addition, the pregnancy rates between the two groups (28.33% vs. 16.67%, p = 0.126) were similar. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest the possibility that biomimetic electrical stimulation combined with Femoston could improve endometrial type and thickness in patients with infertility and thin endometrium compared with Femoston alone, but the pregnancy rate showed no significant improvement. The results need to be confirmed.

Comparison of fixed and flexible progestin-primed ovarian stimulation protocols to prevent premature luteinization in patients with diminished ovarian reserve.

PURPOSE: Flexible progestin-primed ovarian stimulation (PPOS) protocol is demonstrated to be effective in suppressing premature luteinization in few studies. We aimed to compare fixed and flexible PPOS protocols in preventing premature luteinization in patients with diminished ovarian reserve. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study included patients with a diminished ovarian reserve who were administered PPOS protocols for pituitary suppression during ovarian stimulation in a tertiary center in between January 2019 and June 2022. At fixed protocol, 20 mg/day dydrogesterone was started in cycle day two or three along with gonadotropins and continued until trigger day. In contrast, at flexible protocol, 20 mg/day dydrogesterone was commenced when the leading follicle reached 12 mm or serum estradiol (E2) level was > 200 pg/mL. RESULTS: A total of 125 patients, of whom 83 were administered fixed PPOS protocol and 42 were administered flexible PPOS protocol, were included in the analysis. Both groups had similar baseline characteristics and cycle parameters, including total days of gonadotropin administration and total gonadotropin dose (p > 0.05). Premature luteinization occurred at 7.2% and 11.9% of patients in fixed and flexible PPOS protocols, respectively (p = 0.505). Retrieved oocytes numbers, metaphase II oocyte numbers, and 2PN numbers were also similar (p > 0.05). Clinical pregnancy rates per transfer were 52.5% in fixed and 36.4% in flexible protocols (p = 0.499). CONCLUSION: Both fixed and flexible PPOS protocols had statistically similar outcomes in preventing premature luteinization and other cycle parameters. The flexible PPOS protocol seems to be as effective as the fixed PPOS protocol for patients with diminished ovarian reserve; however, further prospective studies should be conducted to validate the results of our research.

Cervical and Vaginal Microbiomes in Early Miscarriages and Ongoing Pregnancy with and without Dydrogesterone Usage.

Emerging evidence suggests that the reproductive tract microbiota is a key modulator of local inflammatory and immune pathways throughout pregnancy and may subsequently impact pregnancy outcomes. In this study, our objective was to analyze the cervical and vaginal microbiomes during early pregnancy among three groups: women with healthy ongoing pregnancies, women undergoing dydrogesterone treatment, and those who experienced miscarriages. The experiment involved 51 women at 8-11 weeks of gestation. The microbiome was examined using 16S rRNA sequencing on the Ion Torrent PGM platform. Across all groups, Lactobacillus iners was predominant, suggesting that the vaginal community type CST III is common among the majority of participants. Notably, our data highlighted the significant roles of Gardnerella vaginalis and Mycoplasma girerdii in the pathogenesis of early miscarriage. Conversely, L. iners and Bifidobacterium longum have a protective effect in early pregnancy. Moreover, dydrogesterone intake appeared to influence notable differences between the cervical and vaginal microbiomes. Overall, our study enhanced our understanding of the cervical and vaginal microbiome composition in the eastern European population during early pregnancy.

[Comparison of the effects and safety of dydrogesterone and medroxyprogesterone acetate on endometrial hyperplasia without atypia: a randomized controlled non-inferior phase â ¢ clinical study].

Objective: To compare the effects and safety of dydrogesterone (DG) and medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) on the treatment in patients with endometrial hyperplasia without atypia (EH). Methods: This was a single-center, open-label, prospective non-inferior randomized controlled phase Ⅲ trial. From February 2019 to November 2021, patients with EH admitted to the Obstetrics and Gynecology Hospital of Fudan University were recruited. Enrolled patients were stratified according to the pathological types of simple hyperplasia (SH) or complex hyperplasia (CH), and were randomised to receive MPA or DG. Untill May 14, 2022, the median follow-up time after complete response (CR) was 9.3 months (1.1-17.2 months). The primary endpoint was the 6-month CR rate (6m-CR rate). The secondary endpoints included the 3-month CR rate (3m-CR rate), adverse events rate, recurrence rate, and pregnancy rate in one year after CR. Results: (1) A total of 292 patients with EH were enrolled in the study with the median age of 39 years (31-45 years). A total of 135 SH patients were randomly assigned to MPA group (n=67) and DG group (n=68), and 157 CH patients were randomly assigned to MPA group (n=79) and DG group (n=78). (2) Among 292 patients, 205 patients enrolled into the primary endpoint analysis, including 92 SH patients and 113 CH patients, with 100 patients in MPA group and 105 in DG group, respectively. The 6m-CR rate of MPA group and DG group were 90.0% (90/100) and 88.6% (93/105) respectively, and there were no statistical significance (χ2=0.11, P=0.741), with the rate difference (RD) was -1.4% (95%CI:-9.9%-7.0%). Stratified by the pathology types, the 6m-CR rate of SH patients was 93.5% (86/92), and MPA group and DG group were respectively 91.1% (41/45) and 95.7% (45/47); and the 6m-CR rate of CH patients was 85.8% (97/113), and MPA group and DG group were 89.1% (49/55) and 82.8% (48/58) respectively. The 6m-CR rates of the two treatments had no statistical significance either (all P>0.05). A total of 194 EH patients enrolled into the secondary endpoint analysis, including 88 SH patients and 106 CH patients, and 96 patients in MPA group and 98 in DG group, respectively. The 3m-CR rate of SH patients were 87.5% (77/88), while the 3m-CR rates of MPA group and DG group were 90.7% (39/43) and 84.4% (38/45), respectively; the 3m-CR rate of CH patients was 66.0% (70/106), and MPA group and DG group had the same 3m-CR rate of 66.0% (35/53). No statistical significance was found between the two treatments both in SH and CH patients (all P>0.05). (3) The incidence of adverse events between MPA group and DG group had no statistical significance (P>0.05). (4) A total of 93 SH patients achieved CR, and the cumulative recurrence rate in one year after CR were 5.9% and 0 in MPA group and DG group, respectively. While 112 CH patients achieved CR, and the cumulative recurrence rate in one year after CR were 8.8% and 6.5% in MPA group and DG group, respectively. There were no statistical significance between two treatment groups (all P>0.05). Among the 93 SH patients, 10 patients had family planning but no pregnancy happened during the follow-up period. Among the 112 CH patients, 21 were actively preparing for pregnancy, and the pregnancy rate and live-birth rate in one year after CR in MPA group were 7/9 and 2/7, while in DG group were respectively 4/12 and 2/4, and there were no statistical significance in pregnancy rate and live-birth rate between the two treatment groups (all P>0.05). Conclusions: Compared with MPA, DG is of good efficacy and safety in treating EH. DG is a favorable alternative treatment for EH patients.

Dydrogesterone and 20α-dihydrodydrogesterone plasma levels on day of embryo transfer and clinical outcome in an anovulatory programmed frozen-thawed embryo transfer cycle: a prospective cohort study.

STUDY QUESTION: What are the plasma concentrations of dydrogesterone (DYD) and its metabolite, 20α-dihydrodydrogesterone (DHD), measured on day of embryo transfer (ET) in programmed anovulatory frozen embryo transfer (FET) cycles using 10 mg per os ter-in-die (tid) oral DYD, and what is the association of DYD and DHD levels with ongoing pregnancy rate? SUMMARY ANSWER: DYD and DHD plasma levels reach steady state by Day 3 of intake, are strongly correlated and vary considerably between and within individual subjects, women in the lowest quarter of DYD or DHD levels on day of FET have a reduced chance of an ongoing pregnancy. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: DYD is an oral, systemic alternative to vaginal progesterone for luteal phase support. The DYD and DHD level necessary to sustain implantation, when no endogenous progesterone is present, remains unknown. While DYD is widely used in fresh IVF cycles, circulating concentrations of DYD and DHD and inter- and intraindividual variation of plasma levels versus successful treatment have never been explored as measurement of DYD and DHD is currently only feasible by high-sensitivity chromatographic techniques such as liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS). STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION: Prospective, clinical cohort study (May 2018-November 2020) (NCT03507673); university IVF-center; women (n = 217) undergoing a programmed FET cycle with 2 mg oral estradiol (tid) and, for luteal support, 10 mg oral DYD (tid); main inclusion criteria: absence of ovulatory follicle and low serum progesterone on Days 12-15 of estradiol intake; serum and plasma samples were taken on day of FET and stored at -80°C for later analysis by LC-MS/MS; in 56 patients, two or more FET cycles in the same protocol were performed. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS: Women undergoing FET on Day 2 or Day 3 (D2, D3, cleavage) or Day 5 (D5, blastocyst) of embryonic development had blood sampling on the 3rd, 4th or 6th day of 10 mg (tid) DYD oral intake, respectively. The patient population was stratified by DYD and DHD plasma levels by percentiles (≤25th versus >25th) separately by day of ET. Ongoing pregnancy rates (a viable pregnancy at >10th gestational week) were compared between ≤25th percentile versus >25th percentile for DYD and DHD levels (adjusted for day of ET). Known predictors of outcome were screened for their effects in addition to DYD, while DYD was considered as log-concentration or dichotomized at the lower quartile. Repeated cycles were analyzed assuming some correlation between them for a given individual, namely by generalized estimating equations for prediction and generalized mixed models for an estimate of the variance component. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: After exclusion of patients with 'escape ovulation' (n = 14, 6%), detected by the presence of progesterone in serum on day of ET, and patients with no results from LC-MS/MS analysis (n = 5), n = 41 observations for cleavage stage ETs and n = 157 for blastocyst transfers were analyzed. Median (quartiles) of plasma levels of DYD and DHD were 1.36 ng/ml (0.738 to 2.17 ng/ml) and 34.0 ng/ml (19.85 to 51.65 ng/ml) on Day 2 or 3 and 1.04 ng/ml (0.707 to 1.62 ng/ml) and 30.0 ng/ml (20.8 to 43.3 ng/ml) on Day 5, respectively, suggesting that steady-state is reached already on Day 3 of intake. DHD plasma levels very weakly associated with body weight and BMI (R2 < 0.05), DYD levels with body weight, but not BMI. Levels of DYD and DHD were strongly correlated (correlation coefficients 0.936 for D2/3 and 0.892 for D5, respectively). The 25th percentile of DYD and DHD levels were 0.71 ng/ml and 20.675 ng/ml on day of ET. The ongoing pregnancy rate was significantly reduced in patients in the lower quarter of DYD or DHD levels: ≤25th percentile DYD or DHD 3/49 (6%) and 4/49 (8%) versus >25th percentile DYD or DHD 42/149 (28%) and 41/149 (27%) (unadjusted difference -22% (CI: -31% to -10%) and -19% (CI: -29% to -7%), adjusted difference -22%, 95% CI: -32 to -12, P < 0.0001). LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION: Some inter- and intraindividual variations in DYD levels could be attributed to differences in time between last 10 mg DYD intake and blood sampling, as well as concomitant food intake, neither of which were registered in this study. Ninety percent of subjects were European-Caucasian and DYD/DHD blood concentrations should be replicated in other and larger populations. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: Daily 10 mg DYD (tid) in an artificial FET cycle is potentially a suboptimal dose for a proportion of the population. Measurement of DYD or DHD levels could be used interchangeably for future studies. The pharmacokinetics of oral DYD and associated reproductive pharmacodynamics need further study. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S): The trial was financed by university funds, except for the cost for plasma and serum sample handling, storage and shipment, as well as the liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis of DYD, DHD and progesterone, which was financially supported by Abbott Products Operations AG (Allschwil, Switzerland). Abbott Products Operations AG had no influence on the study protocol, study conduct, data analysis or data interpretation. K.N. has received honoraria and/or non-financial support (e.g. travel cost compensation) from Ferring, Gedeon-Richter, Merck and MSD. A.M. has no competing interests. R.V. has no competing interests. M.D. has received honoraria and/or non-financial support from Ferring and Merck. A.S.-M. has no competing interests. T.K.E. has received honoraria and/or non-financial support from Roche, Novartis, Pfizer, Aristo Pharma, Merck. G.G. has received honoraria and/or non-financial support (e.g. travel cost compensation) from Abbott, Ferring, Gedeon Richter, Guerbet, Merck, Organon, MSD, ObsEva, PregLem, ReprodWissen GmbH, Vifor and Cooper. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03507673.

Oral, vaginal or intramuscular progesterone in programmed frozen embryo transfer cycles: a pilot randomized controlled trial.

RESEARCH QUESTION: What should be the optimal route of luteal support in programmed frozen embryo transfer (FET) cycles? DESIGN: This was a randomized, parallel, phase IV pilot trial with three groups of women undergoing FET along with hormone replacement therapy for endometrial preparation at a tertiary private IVF centre (NCT03948022). Women with at least one autologous cryopreserved blastocyst were included. After preparing the endometrium with oestradiol, 151 women were randomly assigned to one of the following three progesterone arms before embryo transfer: oral (10 mg) dydrogesterone (DYD), total daily dose 40 mg (n = 52); 8% (90 mg) progesterone vaginal gel (VAG), total daily dose 180 mg (n = 55); or intramuscular progesterone (IMP) 50 mg/ml in oil, total daily dose 100 mg (n = 44). One or two vitrified-warmed blastocysts were transferred after 5 days' progesterone support. RESULTS: Baseline demographic features and embryological data were comparable among the groups. Ongoing pregnancy rates (40.4%, 38.2% and 45.5% in the DYD, VAG and IMP arms; P = 0.76) and live birth rates (40.4%, 38.2% and 43.2% in the DYD, VAG and IMP arms, P = 0.61) were statistically similar. Biochemical pregnancy rates and clinical miscarriage rates were also statistically similar among the groups. Significantly more patients with at least one side effect and moderate-to-severe side effects were documented in the IMP arm than the other groups (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with 40 mg/day oral DYD, 180 mg/day progesterone VAG gel or 100 mg/day IMP revealed similar reproductive outcomes in programmed FET cycles. Side effects were significantly more frequent in the IMP arm.

A critical appraisal of safety data on dydrogesterone for the support of early pregnancy: a scoping review and meta-analysis.

No data support the suggestion that first-trimester dydrogesterone use increases the risk of fetal abnormalities; however, two low-quality retrospective studies (one retracted by the journal) have suggested such a link. A scoping review and meta-analysis were carried out to address this discrepancy. The literature was reviewed but it was not possible to identify any evidence of a plausible mechanism for potential causality between dydrogesterone and fetal abnormalities. To investigate whether any evidence existed, a preliminary meta-analysis was undertaken of clinical studies published since 2005 on first-trimester dydrogesterone use with assessment of fetal abnormalities. A fixed effects model was used to determine pooled odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). From 83 articles identified, six randomized controlled trials were included. Pooled risk ratios (RR) for maternal dydrogesterone use and fetal abnormalities gave a RR approaching 1 (RR 0.96; 95% CI 0.57, 1.62), confirming previous conclusions of no causal association between fetal abnormalities and first-trimester dydrogesterone use. Physicians, scientists and journal reviewers should exercise due diligence to prevent promulgation of retracted data. We are confident in using dydrogesterone, if indicated, in the treatment of threatened or recurrent miscarriage, and believe that its favourable safety profile should extend to its appropriate use in assisted reproductive technologies.

Euploidy rates among preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy cycles with oral dydrogesterone primed ovarian stimulation or GnRH antagonist protocol.

RESEARCH QUESTION: Do differences exist in euploidy rates in preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy (PGT-A) cycles with oral dydrogesterone primed ovarian stimulation protocol or the flexible gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist protocol? DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study. Patients received the oral dydrogesterone or the GnRH antagonist in the first PGT-A cycle between November 2017 and May 2019. Propensity matching was used to identify a propensity-matched antagonist group based on age, BMI and AMH with a 1:1 ratio. The primary outcome was the rate of euploid embryos. RESULTS: A total of 780 cycles were included, consisting of 390 cycles receiving dydrogesterone and 390 cycles receiving GnRH antagonist protocol. No significant difference was found in patient baseline and cycle characteristics in the two groups. No statistical difference was found in the number of oocytes retrieved, metaphase II oocytes, embryos biopsied and embryo testing between the two groups. As no biopsy blastocysts formed in some cycles, only 262 cycles in the study group and 263 cycles in the antagonist group received next-generation sequencing testing, respectively. Similar to our overall data, the euploid rate per embryo biopsied was not significantly different. No significant differences were found between the two groups after stratifying by age and controlling for PGT-A testing modality. CONCLUSIONS: Ovulation inhibition by exogenous progestins in ovarian stimulation cycles should, therefore, be considered a valid modality in freeze-all PGT-A cycles, in view of its demonstrated effectiveness and known safety enhancement.

Lack of analytical interference of dydrogesterone in progesterone immunoassays.

OBJECTIVES: Progesterone, a sex steroid, is measured in serum by immunoassay in a variety of clinical contexts. One potential limitation of steroid hormone immunoassays is interference caused by compounds with structural similarity to the target steroid of the assay. Dydrogesterone (DYD), an orally active stereoisomer of progesterone, is used for various indications in women's health. Herein, we report a systematic in vitro investigation of potential interference of DYD and its active metabolite 20α-dihydrodydrogesterone (DHD) in seven widely used, commercially available progesterone assays. METHODS: Routine human plasma samples were anonymized and pooled to create three graded concentration levels of progesterone (P4 high, P4 medium, P4 low). Each pooled P4 plasma sample (6-7 mL) was spiked at high, medium, and "none" concentration with DYD/DHD and was divided into 0.5 mL aliquots. The blinded aliquots were analyzed by seven different laboratories with their routine progesterone assay (six different immunoassays and one liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assay, respectively) within the Dutch working group on endocrine laboratory diagnostics of the Dutch Foundation for Quality Assessments in Medical Laboratories. RESULTS: The sample recovery rate (P4 result obtained for sample spiked with DYD/DHD, divided by the result obtained for the corresponding sample with no DYD/DHD × 100) was within a ±10% window for the medium and high P4 concentrations, but more variable for the low P4 samples. The latter is, however, attributable to high inter- and intra-method variability at low P4 concentrations. CONCLUSIONS: This study does not indicate any relevant interference of DYD/DHD within routinely used progesterone assays.