The pathogenic microbial flora and its antibiotic susceptibility pattern in odontogenic infections.

Suppurative head and neck infections of odontogenic origin are the most frequent type of head and neck infections. According to the literature, 7-10% of all antibiotics are currently prescribed for their treatment. Since penicillin was invented, the overall antibiotic sensitivity and resistance pattern of the isolated pathogenic microflora has continuously changed. The response of microorganisms to antibiotics and the development of resistance to their action is a purely evolutive process characterized by genetic mutations, acquisition of genetic material or alteration of gene expression and metabolic adaptations. All this makes challenging and difficult the correct choice of empirical antibiotic treatment for head and neck space infections even today. The aim of this paper was to evaluate the literature and to evidence the most frequent locations of odontogenic head and neck infections, the dominant pathogenic microbial flora, the genetic mutations and metabolic changes necessary for bacteria in order to aquire antibiotic resistance and as well its susceptibility and resistance to common antibiotics. We also aimed to highlight the possible changes in bacterial resistance to antibiotics over time, and to assess whether or not there is a need for fundamental changes in the empirical antibiotic treatment of these infections and show which these would be.

Is there need for technical investigations in order to predict potential length of hospital stay of oral infections?

OBJECTIVE: Oral and maxillofacial infections are generally treated by primary dental or medical caregivers. Nevertheless, because these infections are known to have life-threatening complications, there is a need of clear indicators for emergency services medical staff, particularly in determining when morbidity can be expected and when in-hospital treatment is required. This retrospective study aimed to identify variables that were observable at admission, which could indicate high complication rates, long hospital stays, and/or a need for tracheostomy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We examined data from all cases of severe oral and maxillofacial infections that were treated at the University Hospital of Leuven, between January 2013 and June 2017. 64 cases were identified after applying exclusion criteria. Uni- and multivariate analyses were performed. RESULTS: A univariate analysis showed that body temperature, C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, white blood cell counts, and positive bacterial cultures were significantly associated with longer hospital stays, which indicated potential future morbidity. A multivariate analysis showed that dyspnoea, age, and CRP comprised the most significant combination for predicting the length of hospital stay. CONCLUSION: Based on the statistical analysis of this population, the research group concludes that a thorough anamnesis and clinical examination should be accompanied by a blood analysis of CRP and white blood cell counts. Only then can a well-founded decision be reached on the severity of the case and the need for hospital admission. In an acute setting, radiological imaging is not required for assessing future morbidity, but it should be performed when accessible.

[A renewed focus on extra-oral manifestations of oral infections]. / Hernieuwde aandacht voor extraorale gevolgen van ontstekingen in de mond.

Dental focal infections are extraoral manifestations caused by oral pathogens. Pathological oral conditions, such as periapical inflammation and periodontitis, can cause bacteremia. Dissemination of oral pathogens to nonoral sites can subsequently cause infections in extraoral tissues and organs. Cardiovascular infections and brain abscesses are the most common of these. The course of such infections can be lethal. In order to improve patient care, a closer collaboration between dental and medical caregivers is necessary.

Temporomandibular Joint Septic Arthritis and Mandibular Osteomyelitis Arising From an Odontogenic Infection: A Case Report and Review of the Literature.

Septic arthritis of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) has been infrequently reported in the literature. Some investigators believe that this condition is under-reported because it is underdiagnosed. Misdiagnosis or late diagnosis of this condition can lead to serious morbidity, including fistula formation, intracranial abscess, fibrous or bony ankylosis, temporal bone or condylar osteomyelitis, growth alteration, and several others. This report describes a case of septic TMJ arthritis arising from direct spread of an odontogenic infection with subsequent development of mandibular osteomyelitis. The purpose of this case report is to 1) increase awareness of an underdiagnosed condition, 2) establish the seriousness of this infection, 3) for the first time report on a case of TMJ septic arthritis caused by Bacteroides infection, and 4) provide a review of the relevant literature.

Antibiotic Therapy in the Treatment of Odontogenic Infections-An Evolving Landscape.

Odontogenic infections continue to be the most common reason for people to seek dental care. Antibiotic therapy, combined with appropriate surgical intervention has been the mainstay in treating dental infections for many years. Availability of new antimicrobial agents and reports of decreased efficacy in commonly used antibiotics warrant continued study to assure that the most effective agents are utilized. This paper presents a brief summary of the bacterial populations associated with odontogenic infection and their antibiotic resistance mechanisms. Information from a number of studies, including our own data, concerning antibiotic resistance and efficacy are presented. This paper may provide the practitioner with additional information as a guide for appropriate antibiotic use in odontogenic infections.

An unusual infection of cervicofacial area caused by dental pathology: flesh-eating syndrome.

Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) of the cervicofacial area is highly rare, but physicians should be familiar with the presentation of this situation owing to the suddenness of its beginning, the rapidness of its spread, and ending with high mortality and morbidity. In this article, 5 patients with NF admitted to emergency department with dental pathology history were discussed with a review of the literature. The purpose of this case series is to raise awareness about NF of the cervicofacial area caused by dental pathologies. Five patients admitted to our emergency department between January 2012 and March 2015 and diagnosed as having cervicofacial NF were identified. All patients had dental pathologies. The parameters of the study were patients' age, sex, complaints, self- and family histories, physical examinations' findings, routine laboratory-computed tomographic findings, treatment, and complications. Two of the patients were older than 70 years. One of the patients was healthy but he lost time because of an inappropriate treatment. These 3 patients died. The remaining patients were discharged at the end of the prolonged and intensive treatment. Necrotizing fasciitis should always be remembered in the diagnosis of the infection of the cervicofacial area. Because of difficulty in its diagnosis, a delay in the treatment may result in a horrific outcome.

From the Acta Prize Lecture 2014: the periodontal-systemic connection seen from a microbiological standpoint.

OBJECTIVE: To give an overview of the periodontal-systemic connection seen from a microbiologist. METHODS: Original research papers, review articles and workshop proceedings were consulted. RESULTS: Periodontal bacteria can cross epithelial cells, enter the circulation, invade endothelial cells, induce endothelial cell dysfunction and activate inflammatory and immune responses. Several studies support the association between periodontitis (PD) and cardiovascular disease. Severe PD involves a risk for development of type 2 diabetes. Maternal PD is moderately associated with adverse pregnancy outcome and pre-eclampsia. Dental plaque can contain respiratory pathogens able to promote chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and pneumonia. Periodontal bacterial DNA has been detected in synovial fluid of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Minor evidence exists for associations between PD and chronic kidney disease, obesity, cancer, metabolic syndrome and cognitive impairment. Concerns can be raised as to the interpretation of some study results due to heterogeneity in definitions used for PD, too much weight upon in vitro studies with a few selected organisms and failing recognition that the majority of the periodontal microbiota is not yet cultivated. CONCLUSION: Periodontal bacteria may participate in extra-oral infections such as CVD, diabetes, APO, pre-eclampsia, COPD, pneumonia, RA, CKD, obesity, cancer, MetS and cognitive impairment. Most knowledge is based on associations which do not necessarily imply causality. Future studies should reach consensus on the definition of PD and systemic disease outcomes, recognize the full spectrum of the microbiota in PD and bacteremia, including not-yet-cultivated organisms and delineate the clinical significance of genetic strain variations and the role of periodontopathogenic vs gut organisms within atheromatous lesions. For demonstration of causality, large, long-term clinical studies should use well-defined criteria for PD and robust disease outcomes to elucidate the importance of PD intervention and prevention.

The role of unfinished root canal treatment in odontogenic maxillofacial infections requiring hospital care.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to evaluate clinical and radiological findings and the role of periapical infection and antecedent dental treatment of infected focus teeth in odontogenic maxillofacial abscesses requiring hospital care. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study, we evaluated medical records and panoramic radiographs during the hospital stay of patients (n = 60) admitted due to odontogenic maxillofacial infection originating from periapical periodontitis. RESULTS: Twenty-three (38 %) patients had received endodontic treatment and ten (17 %) other acute dental treatment. Twenty-seven (45 %) had not visited the dentist in the near past. Median age of the patients was 45 (range 20-88) years and 60 % were males. Unfinished root canal treatment (RCT) was the major risk factor for hospitalisation in 16 (27 %) of the 60 cases (p = .0065). Completed RCT was the source only in 7 (12 %) of the 60 cases. Two of these RCTs were adequate and five inadequate. CONCLUSIONS: The initiation of inadequate or incomplete primary RCT of acute periapical periodontitis appears to open a risk window for locally invasive spread of infection with local abscess formation and systemic symptoms. Thereafter, the quality of the completed RCT appears to have minor impact. However, a considerable proportion of the patients had not received any dental treatment confirming the importance of good dental health. Thus, thorough canal debridement during the first session is essential for minimising the risk for spread of infection in addition to incision and drainage of the abscess. If this cannot be achieved, tooth extraction should be considered. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Incomplete or inadequate canal debridement and drainage of the abscess may increase the risk for spread of endodontic infection.

Facial paralysis and mediastinitis due to odontogenic infection and poor prognosis.

Cervical necrotizing fasciitis (CNF) is a rare, rapidly advancing infection that involves the skin, the subcutaneous fibrofatty tissue, as well as the superficial and deep fascia and can cause life-threatening complications. The most frequent initiating factors in the head and neck region are a primary odontogenic infection, a peritonsillar infection, as well as posttraumatic or iatrogenic skin and mucosal injuries. Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) can expand within hours, and the reported mortality rate is up to 75% with delay interference. If the patients have any risk factors, poor prognosis can be seen. In this study, 1 patient with CNF with a history of peritonsillar infection and 2 patients with CNF who had a history of odontogenic infection with spreading to the temporal region and the mediastinum were described, with information of the literature and a clinical experience that was gained from 5 patients with NF who were seen at our clinic in the recent year, despite the fact that CNF was not seen up to last year. None of the patients had any risk factors. One of them had a worse clinical state with ascending infection to the temporal region, cranial nerve paralysis, and descending necrotizing mediastinitis, but he recovered from NF. After the oral intake began, dyspnea due to aspiration was seen and he died because of sepsis and multiorgan dysfunction. We aimed to attract attention to the importance of dental pathologies and increased mortality in a healthy patient.

Extensive cervical necrotizing fasciitis of odontogenic origin.

Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) is an uncommon infection, but potentially lethal, especially when associated with systemic disorders such as diabetes. The authors report a case of necrotizing fasciitis from odontogenic origin in a patient with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. The initial diagnosis was based on clinical information, in which multiple necrosis areas in cervical and thoracic regions were observed. Wide antibiotic therapy was applied, followed by surgical drain age and debridement. Culture was positive for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Although the treatment is established, the patient dies after sepsis and failure of vital organs. Clearly, the morbidity associated to this infection, even in diabetic patients, can be minimized if an early diagnosis and effective debridement are done.

Determinant of antibacterial failure in patients with head and neck infections with odontogenic source.

INTRODUCTION: Odontogenic infections are polymicrobial in origin and can be life-threatening. Antibacterial failure is an important issue in the treatment of odontogenic infections. This study aimed to determine the factors associated with antibacterial failure in patients with head and neck infections with odontogenic sources. MATERIAL AND METHOD: This retrospective epidemiological study was performed using data collected from 229 patients with head and neck infections with an odontogenic source who had been operated on in Shahid Rajaee hospital from March 2014 to December 2019. RESULTS: 123 (53.7%) patients were female and there were106 (46.3%) males. The mean age ± SD was 33.01±13.37 years (range 7 to 80). The most common offending teeth were lower molars (81.7%) and lower premolars (5.7%). The most common site of infection was the submandibular area (36.4%) followed by the buccal (20.4%) and pterygomandibular (17.1%) regions. The most common pathogen was Streptococcus haemolyticus. The length of hospitalization was higher (4.66 days) in patients with failure of treatment compared to those without it (6.00 days) (p=0.002). A combination of penicillin G and metronidazole was prescribed for all patients with failure of treatment compared with 57.6% in patients without failure of treatment (p=0.002). There was no statistically significant difference between the two groups regarding age, duration of illness before hospitalization, WBC, gender and history of chemotherapy, hypertension, smoking, pregnancy, alcohol usage, diabetes mellitus, the rate of fever, trismus, dysphagia, malaise, antibiotic before hospitalization, and surgical approach. CONCLUSION: Possible determinants in this study were not associated with antibacterial failure. Further studies should be conducted to investigate this relationship.

Streptococcal lung abscesses from a dental focus following tocilizumab: a case report.

Patients suffering from dental infections and concurrently using immunosuppressive medication are at increased risk of developing systemic streptococcal infections. Tocilizumab is a novel therapeutic agent targeting interleukin-6. We describe a case of streptococcal lung abscesses from a dental focus after use of tocilizumab for treatment of Takayasu arteritis.

Is there association between severe multispace infections of the oral maxillofacial region and diabetes mellitus?

PURPOSE: This study aims to identify the impact of diabetes on the final outcome (length of hospital stay and development of complications) in patients with severe multispace infections in the head and neck. Furthermore, it intends to characterize significant clinical features of these patients compared with nondiabetics. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective study was conducted in 117 patients who received treatment for multispace infections of the head and neck region from 2007 through 2010 at the Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Shanghai Ninth Hospital. The study identified diabetic patients and compared them with nondiabetic patients. Demographics, etiology of infection, clinical parameters (time from first onset of symptoms to hospital admission, number of spaces affected, and distribution of involved spaces), and laboratory values (bacteriology, admission blood glucose level, admission white blood cell count, and percentage of neutrophils on admission) were analyzed for clinical significance. Statistical analyses of the results between groups were performed using the Student t test, χ(2) test, variance analysis, logistic regression analysis, and linear regression analysis. RESULTS: Admission blood glucose level was the only factor influencing the complications in multispace infections in the oral-maxillofacial region. Compared with nondiabetic patients, diabetics had infections that involved more spaces, longer hospital stays, and more frequent complications. Some diabetic patients died. The disease status (with or without diabetes) was associated with clinical outcomes (length of hospital stay and complications) in the therapy procedures. CONCLUSIONS: This study identifies uncontrolled diabetes mellitus as an important indicator of clinical features and outcomes in treating multispace infections of the oral-maxillofacial region.

Ascending necrotizing fasciitis of the face following odontogenic infection.

Necrotizing fasciitis (NF) of the face is a rare but extremely dangerous complication of dental infection associated with a nearly 30% mortality rate. This infection spreads rapidly along the superficial fascial planes of the head and neck and can lead to severe disfigurement. Reports in the literature of cases of NF of the face caused by dental infection are few. We report such a case in a 36-year-old woman and review the current standards of diagnosis and management. The patient initially presented with pain and severe swelling in the left side of her face subsequent to a dental infection. The symptoms had progressed quickly and had not improved with administration of oral antibiotics in the outpatient setting. The patient had no palpable crepitus despite its classic association with NF. The infection also took a rare, ascending route of spread with involvement of the temporalis muscle. Cultures taken during debridement grew Streptococcus anginosus and Bacteroides. Biopsies of involved muscle showed histologic evidence of necrosis. Through early surgical intervention including aggressive debridement, and the adjunctive use of appropriate antibiotics, the patient recovered with minimal loss of facial mass and no skin loss. Although NF of the face is rare, the surgeon must maintain a high index of suspicion with any patient presenting after a dental infection with rapid progression of swelling and a disproportionate amount of pain that is unresponsive to antibiotics.

Brain abscess secondary to a dental infection in an 11-year-old child: case report.

A primary molar dental abscess was implicated as the cause of a brain abscess in an 11-year-old boy. This case report describes the neurological signs and symptoms, and acute management of a brain abscess in a child. A brain abscess is provisionally diagnosed from the patient's medical history, as well as the presence of signs and symptoms such as fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, focal neurological deficit, altered mentation, speech alterations, papillary edema, and neck stiffness or seizures. A definitive diagnosis of brain abscess is confirmed through imaging. The dental source of infection is identified by the exclusion of more probable foci such as the ears, heart, lungs, eyes or sinuses.

Orbital abscess arising from an odontogenic infection.

AIM: Presenting a rare complication of an odontogenic infection extending to the orbit. BACKGROUND: A 45-year-old male patient reported with periorbital swelling of eyelids, of the left eye, foul smelling nasal discharge and a pus draining sinus on the left lower eyelid area. CASE DESCRIPTION: The patient gave history of pain in the left upper first molar tooth 1 week back. His intraoral examination showed poor oral hygiene with tenderness on percussion on the left maxillary first molar. Investigations showed possible extension of infection from left maxillary molar root to maxillary sinus and to the orbital floor. CONCLUSION: A case of periapical infection of a maxillary left molar resulting in an orbital abscess is presented. Identification of odontogenic source of infections, institution of drainage, removal of offending teeth and appropriate antimicrobial therapy are mandatory in preventing loss of vision and cerebral extensions. The pathways of spread of the infection, treatment aspects, are discussed and complications are reviewed.

Is dental treatment of an infected tooth a risk factor for locally invasive spread of infection?

PURPOSE: To determine the impact of antecedent dental procedures and dental health on the course of odontogenic maxillofacial infections requiring hospital care. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In this retrospective cohort study in a referral center, we evaluated medical records and panoramic radiographs of all patients admitted because of odontogenic maxillofacial infection (n = 84). The predictor variables were preceding dental treatment, antimicrobial therapy, and dental health. The outcome variables comprised infection parameters, length of stay, need for intensive care, and management during hospitalization. RESULTS: The mean age of the patients was 43.2 ± 16.5 years and 60% were men. Dental procedure preceded the spread of the infection in 49 cases (58%): endodontic treatment (n = 22), tooth extraction (n = 19), and minor first aid (n = 8). Twenty-seven patients had not received any dental or antimicrobial treatment in the recent past. Antimicrobial treatment alone had been given to 8 patients. Patients without preceding treatment had the highest C-reactive protein levels on admission and at maximum (P = .020 and P = .011) and the highest white blood cell counts on admission (P = .011). Their length of stay was also longer, and they needed intensive care more often than the other patients. Maximum C-reactive protein levels and white blood cell counts between treatment groups did not significantly differ from each other. CONCLUSIONS: The systemic response to the infection was strongest and the course of the infection most severe in the absence of preceding dental treatment and in patients with poor dental health. All types of dental treatment contributed to a less severe course of infection.

Brain abscess of odontogenic origin.

Brain abscess is a rare and threatening infection, which is in a suppuration area, caused either by trauma, neurosurgical complication, or by a secondary infection of dental origin complication. The infectious process spread from the start focus can occur in 2 ways: hematogenous or by contiguity. The treatment should ideally be based on the etiological factor excision, combined with drainage and antibiotics as adjuvant; this philosophy is not observed in the reports described in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. This study's goal was to report a case of brain abscess consequent of an odontogenic outbreak, where an adequate treatment was set up, but it was already in advanced stages and had as a result the lethal outcome. Complications from the odontogenic infections have a low incidence, but should never be disregarded, because they can lead to death, as described in this manuscript.

[Septic metastases of suppuration of odontogenic origin]. / Metastazele septice ale supuratiilor de origine odontogena.

The infections of odontogenic origin, set in the soft tissues region of the viscerocranium are among the most frequent conditions specific to this anatomical level. A distinct category among these, represented by the conditions with diffuse character, may have serious forms, developing systemic septic metastases. The current paper displays a study approaching seven cases of odontogenic diffuse infections with metastases at distance. The ways in which the septic metastases appeared, as well as the topic and general prescribed treatment have been analyzed. The expanding at distance of the suppuration occurred at those patients who were suffering from cervical necroziting fasciitis associated to some immunodepressing conditions. Out of the 7 patients involved in the study, 4 were suffering from uncompensated diabetes and obesity. All those 7 patients had septic conditions localized in mediastinal region, and in 3 cases hepatic septic affections were observed. The best treatment possible for these conditions proved to be the surgical one associated with that concerned with the sustenance of the general state of health, the rebalancing of the homeostatic constants and the antibacterial one. The post-surgical evolution in case of 5 patients was a good one, in case of 2 patients being unfavourable because of the appearance of the multiorganic insufficiency and of death.