Takayasu's Arteritis Presenting Atypically in a Female Nigerian.

Takayasu's arteritis (TA) is an idiopathic form of large vessel granulomatous vasculitis that mainly affects the aorta and its major branches, most frequently in young women under 50 years. While traditionally, it is a disease found commonly in Asia continent, it has also been reported from different parts of the world, albeit with a few reports from Sub-Sahara Africa. The clinical presentations are variable and are commonly from systemic inflammation, vascular occlusive diseases and aneurysm. Asymptomatic cases of TA have been documented and are usually discovered incidentally on physical examination. Common vascular symptoms from different series include vascular claudication, reduced or absent pulse, carotid bruit, hypertension and headache. Facial mononeuropathy and retinal ischaemic changes are rare findings in TA. However, occlusive disease of ulnar artery has not been reported in TA despite our extensive literature search. Here, we present a 48-year-old woman, who was admitted via the medical emergency with community acquired pneumonia but was incidentally diagnosed with Takayasu arteritis with lower motor neuron facial nerve palsy, unilateral blindness, and ulnar artery occlusion. Multidisciplinary management was instituted and patient was discharged after resolution of community acquired pneumonia, vascular claudication, and chronic headache. TA often presents asymptomatically and sometimes with atypical features and thus we suggest high index of suspicion and detailed cardio-vascular examination in young individuals with unexplained chronic headache, facial nerve palsy and visual symptoms.

Mechanical solutions to salvage failed distraction osteogenesis in large bone defect management.

INTRODUCTION: Ilizarov bone transport for large bone defect is challenging and may end in distraction osteogenesis failure. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Ten forearm and seven tibial defect cases with failed regeneration due to ischaemia during bone transport were studied retrospectively. Mean forearm and tibial defects were 5.5 ± 0.8 and 7.6 ± 1 cm respectively, or 22.3 ± 3.6 and 20 ± 2.3% as compared with healthy segments. Most patients had numerous previous operations (2.6 ± 0.5 and 3.4 ± 0.8 per patient, respectively), extensive scars locally and post-traumatic neuropathy. There were seven infected defects. Mechanical solutions used were (1) additional osteotomy and transport of the fragment to compact the ischaemic regenerate (10 forearms, 4 tibias) and (2) compaction of the connective tissue layer in the tibial regenerate with either two 5-mm steps (two cases) or gradually (one case). RESULTS: Bone integrity was restored in all the cases. Complete compensation of the defects was achieved in 12 patients with the first technique. Two patients with 8-cm ulna defects remained with residual discrepancy. In the forearm, mean compaction was 1.7 ± 0.4 cm. It took 25.7 ± 5.4 days followed by an average fixation period of 107.1 ± 11.8 days. In the tibia, mean longitudinal compaction by distraction measured 1.7 ± 0.8 cm. The second technique ended up with an acceptable shortening of 1 cm in two cases. Four centimeters were compressed in the third case gradually. CONCLUSION: The technical solutions used for mechanical effects on the ischaemic distraction regenerate resulted in its rescue and bone union in all the cases.

Thumb Reconstruction With Thin Proximal Ulnar Perforator Free Flap.

Soft tissue defects of the thumb with exposure of tendons, periosteum, or neurovascular bundles require a complex reconstruction aimed at restoring both skin coverage and the essential function of pinching and manipulation. When large defects are involved, a free tissue transfer is indicated. The proximal ulnar perforator flap represents an interesting solution without the drawbacks of other more widespread free flaps. This report describes the case of a patient with a squamous cell carcinoma of the thumb that required circumferential resection of the soft tissue of the distal phalanx and the interphalangeal joint. The exposed structures were covered with pliable and texture-matching skin harvested from the proximal volar forearm and based on the proximal ulnar perforator. After 12-month follow-up, the patient was satisfied with the aesthetic outcome. Donor-site morbidity was minimal and no functional impairment in daily-life activities was reported. Even though a skilled microsurgical technique is required for the dissection of the perforator, its constant vascular anatomy and the low risk of damage to the main neurovascular bundle should make this flap reliable for the majority of hand surgeons.

Elbow vascularized composite allotransplantation-surgical anatomy and technique.

BACKGROUND: Elbow reconstruction with vascularized composite allotransplantation (VCA) may hold promise in treating end-stage arthritis as no current treatment is both functional and durable. We describe the vascular and gross anatomy of the elbow in the context of VCA procurement and propose a step-by-step surgical technique for human elbow VCA. METHODS: We injected latex in the arterial tree of 16 fresh adult cadaveric upper extremities. We identified and measured arteries and nerves and their branch points relative to the medial epicondyle. Based on our determination of the dominant blood supply to osseous and capsular elbow structures, we derived a cadaveric model of elbow VCA by performing donor preparation on 2 fresh cadaveric upper extremities by elevating a lateral arm flap in conjunction with the vascularized elbow joint. We prepared and transplanted 2 size-matched recipient specimens to refine the surgical technique. RESULTS: The elbow arterial supply was composed of consistent branches contributing to medial, lateral, and posterior arcades. Preservation of the elbow arterial network requires sectioning of the brachial, radial, and ulnar arteries 12 cm proximal, 1 cm distal, and 6 cm distal to the ulnar artery takeoff, respectively. The supinator, anconeus, distal brachialis, proximal aspects of the flexor digitorum profundus, and flexor carpi ulnaris must be preserved to protect osseous perforators. Articular innervation was most commonly derived from ulnar and median nerve branches. We refined our proposed surgical technique after performing 2 cadaveric elbow VCAs. CONCLUSIONS: Elbow VCA may be technically feasible on the basis of its consistent vascular anatomy and our proposed surgical technique.

Reconstruction of ulnar defect with vascularized rib graft: A case report.

This case report describes the reconstruction of a segmental ulnar defect using a vascularized rib graft. A 27-year-old man was injured during military service by an improvised explosive device, resulting in bilateral through-the-knee amputations, left hand deformity, and a segmental left ulnar defect. After unsuccessful ulnar reconstruction with nonvascularized autologous bone and allograft bone substitutes, he presented to our institution. We removed the residual allograft fragments from the ulnar defect, harvested a vascularized left sixth rib with the intercostal artery and vein, secured the construct with internal hardware, and performed microanastomoses of the intercostal artery and vein to the posterior interosseous artery and vein. Postoperatively, he had a hematoma at the vascularized graft recipient site caused by anticoagulation therapy for his chronic deep vein thrombosis. Despite this, the rib graft successfully incorporated on the basis of radiographic and clinical examinations at 27 months. He had no pain and good function of the arm. The results of this case suggest that a vascularized rib graft for forearm reconstruction may be a viable option with minimal donor site morbidity. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 37:160-164, 2017.

Presentation of the vascular supply of the proximal ulna using a sequential plastination technique.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the peri- and intraosseous vascular supply of the proximal ulna. METHODS: Eleven fresh human cadaveric elbows were sequentially plastinated beginning with arterial injection, followed by block and secondary slice plastination of the whole elbow. With this technique, we obtained completely transparent cadaveric slices in which the peri- and intraosseous vascular architecture could be studied. RESULTS: Proximal ulna vascularization is due to an arterial network: a superior and inferior collateral ulnar artery and the profunda brachial artery climbing to the olecranon from proximal. An anterior artery and a posterior recurrent artery climb up distally to the medial parts of the ulna and an interosseous recurrent artery is responsible for the lateral and posterolateral proximal part of the ulna. The intraosseous vascularization is due to directly penetrating branches out of the posterior recurrent ulnar artery and a vascular plexus at the olecranon tip. In addition, we saw a major distal bone penetration branch coming from the recurrent posterior artery, climbing intraosseously without junction to the proximal penetrating branches. CONCLUSION: The peri- and intraosseous vascularization of the proximal ulna was shown. A transitional zone of the intraosseous vascularization of the proximal ulna was detected.

[Anatomical rationale for elevating revascularized ulnar forearm fasciocutaneous flap for head and neck reconstruction].

In this paper we studied in detail features of the blood supply to the tissues of the forearm of the pools ulnar and radial arteries, the technique of line access and the formation of skin-fascial ulnar flap by using a layered dissection with contrast vessels on non fixed human cadavers. Blood supply of the forearm carried out by branches radial and ulnar arteries, which allows to create in this area radial flap and ulnar flap loo. The size of the skin-fascial ulnar flap can reach 3-10 cm in length, 2-6 cm in width, the length of vessel pedicle of the transplant can reach 12 cm. The research studied the characteristics of blood supply of the forearm and the comparative evaluation of tissue perfusion of the radial and ulnar arteries; proved localization forming ulnar flap. Studies have shown that revascularised skin-fascial ulnar flap may be can be an alternative donor material for elimination of soft tissue defects with less traumatization donor area and reduce upper limb function compared with radial flap.

Vascular Supply of the Wrist.

The vascular anatomy of the wrist is vital in the development of multiple disorders at the carpus. Understanding this vascular network may prevent iatrogenic injury to the blood supply and can be used by surgeons through vascularized bone grafts. Multiple surgical techniques take advantage of the vascular network. This article reviews the blood supply of the distal radius, ulna, and carpal bones and its clinical implications.

Vascular anatomy of the proximal ulna.

PURPOSE: To describe the intraosseous arterial anatomy of the proximal ulna. METHODS: We used 9 fresh-frozen, above-elbow amputations to map the intraosseous arterial supply using the Spalteholtz technique. We treated 3 additional above-elbow amputations similarly, and then dissected them to map the extraosseous arterial supply. We recorded the extraosseous arterial patterns and compared them with the intraosseous arterial findings. RESULTS: The intraosseous arterial supply to the proximal ulna is derived primarily from a large nutrient vessel, a branch of the ulna artery, entering the anterior cortex of the ulna distal to the coronoid base, and from 2 medium-sized branches of the posterior and medial arcade entering near the olecranon tip. A watershed area is seen between these 2 vessel groups, halfway between the tips of the olecranon and coronoid. CONCLUSIONS: The arterial supply of the proximal ulna is relatively consistent and flows in opposite directions from the 2 separate areas.

Vascularized Ulnar Transposition and Radioulnoscapholunate Fusion With Volar Locking Plate in a Dorsal Position Following Resection of Giant Cell Tumor of the Distal Radius.

Giant cell tumor of the distal radius is a rare, locally destructive, and frequently recurrent tumor. We present a case of Campanacci Grade III giant cell tumor of the distal radius with pathologic fracture and cortical destruction which was treated with neoadjuvant denosumab. This facilitated en-bloc resection of the entire distal radius, including the articular surface, while minimizing tumor contamination. Reconstruction was accomplished using a vascularized ulnar transposition flap to facilitate radioulnoscapholunate fusion, which was fixated using a long-stem contralateral variable angle locking volar distal radius plate in a dorsal position. This case illustrates multidisciplinary management of a challenging reconstructive problem and demonstrates a novel strategy for fixation which repurposes familiar and readily available hardware to provide optimal osteosynthesis.

Volar Radius Vascularized Bone Flaps for the Treatment of Scaphoid Nonunion.

Vascularized bone flaps (VBFs) improve union rates for scaphoid nonunions compared with nonvascularized grafts. Volar VBFs are indicated in cases of scaphoid nonunion with avascular necrosis and/or humpback deformity. Four volar VBFs are described in this article. The volar carpal artery and pronator quadratus VBFs are most commonly used. The pisiform VBF can be used for replacement of the proximal pole of the scaphoid; it is covered by articular cartilage. The ulna VBF has greater donor morbidity; the ulnar artery is harvested and a palpable donor site deformity results.

Anatomic characterization of the radial and ulnar nutrient arteries in humans.

BACKGROUND: The localization of nutrient foramens has been extensively studied in humans and other vertebrate animals. However, accurate information on the origin and extraosseous course of the nutrient arteries in some types of long tubular bones is lacking. Terminologia Anatomica, the international standard on human anatomic terminology, lists the radial nutrient artery (RNA) and the ulnar nutrient artery (UNA) as branches of the radial and ulnar arteries, respectively. Anatomy textbooks published in both German- and English-speaking countries regard both the RNA and UNA as branches of the anterior interosseous artery. METHODS: To clarify the anatomic characteristics of the RNA and UNA in humans, we reexamined the origin and course of these arteries by cadaveric dissection. RESULTS: Almost all RNAs and UNAs branched from the ulnar artery or its tributaries. In typical cases, the RNA branched from the anterior interosseous artery and the UNA branched from the proximal part of the ulnar artery or the anterior interosseous artery. These findings are reasonable from the perspective of regional anatomy, since the ulnar artery passes more deeply than the radial artery in the proximal forearm and thus the proximal part of the ulnar artery and its major branches are situated more closely to the radial and ulnar nutrient foramens. CONCLUSIONS: Based on our findings, it is necessary to correct the position of the RNA and UNA in the arterial hierarchy of T. Anatomica for accurate morphological description.

Effect of fatigue loading and associated matrix microdamage on bone blood flow and interstitial fluid flow.

Functional adaptation of bone to cyclic fatigue involves a complex physiological response that is targeted to sites of microdamage. The mechanisms that regulate this process are not understood, although lacunocanalicular interstitial fluid flow is likely important. We investigated the effect of a single period of cyclic fatigue on bone blood flow and interstitial fluid flow. The ulnae of 69 rats were subjected to cyclic fatigue unilaterally using an initial peak strain of -6000 muepsilon until 40% loss of stiffness developed. Groups of rats (n=23 per group) were euthanized immediately after loading, at 5 days, and at 14 days. The contralateral ulna served as a treatment control, and a baseline control group (n=23) that was not loaded was also included. After euthanasia, localization of intravascular gold microspheres within the ulna (n=7 rats/group) and tissue distribution of procion red tracer were quantified (n=8 rats/group). Microcracking, modeling, and remodeling (Cr.S.Dn, microm/mm(2), Ne.Wo.B.T.Ar, mm(2), and Rs.N/T.Ar, #/mm(2) respectively) were also quantified histologically (n=8 rats/group). Cyclic fatigue loading induced hyperemia of the loaded ulna, which peaked at 5 days after loading. There was an associated overall decrease in procion tracer uptake in both the loaded and contralateral control ulnae. Tracer uptake was also decreased in the periosteal region, when compared with the endosteal region of the cortex. Pooling of tracer was seen in microdamaged bone typically adjacent to an intracortical stress fracture at all time points after fatigue loading; in adjacent bone tracer uptake was decreased. New bone formation was similar at 5 days and at 14 days, whereas formation of resorption spaces was increased at 14 days. These data suggest that a short period of cyclic fatigue induces bone hyperemia and associated decreased lacunocanalicular interstitial fluid flow, which persists over the time period in which osteoclasts are recruited to sites of microdamage for targeted remodeling. Matrix damage and development of stress fracture also interfere with normal centrifugal fluid flow through the cortex. Changes in interstitial fluid flow in the contralateral ulna suggest that functional adaptation to unilateral fatigue loading may include a more generalized neurovascular response.

Location, number and clinical significance of nutrient foramina in human long bones.

Nutrient arteries, the main blood supply to long bones, are particularly important during the active growth period, as well as during the early phases of ossification. In the present study, 569 adult human long bones of the upper (101 humeri, 93 radii, 102 ulnae) and lower (100 femora, 100 tibiae, 73 fibulae) limbs were investigated to determine the number and location of their nutrient foramina. For each bone, a foraminal index was calculated giving the location of the nutrient foramen in relation to its proximal end. In the upper limb, foramina were located on the diaphysis 15-69% of the overall length of the humerus, 22-46% for the radius and 27-54% for the ulna. In the lower limb, foramina were located on the diaphysis 29-69% of the overall length of the femur, 27-63% for the tibia and 26-83% for the fibula. In addition, the number and the distribution of the foramina in relation to specific regions/surfaces of the diaphysis were identified. This study provides additional and important information on the location and number of nutrient foramina in the long bones of the upper and lower limbs in the Turkish Caucasian population.

Ipsilateral vascularised ulnar transposition autograft for limb-sparing surgery of the distal radius in 2 dogs with osteosarcoma.

Canine osteosarcoma is the most commonly diagnosed primary bone tumour in the dog, affecting mainly large and giant breed dogs with the predilection site being the metaphysis of long bones, specifically the distal radius, proximal humerus, distal femur and proximal tibia and fibula. Treatment options are either palliative or curative intent therapy, the latter limb amputation or limb-sparing surgery together with chemotherapy. This article describes the use of an ipsilateral vascularised ulnar transposition autograft as well as chemotherapy in 2 dogs with osteosarcoma of the distal radius. Both dogs showed minimal complications with the technique and both survived over 381 days following the surgery. Complications seen were loosening of the screws and osteomyelitis. The procedure was well tolerated with excellent limb use. This technique is indicated for use in cases with small tumour size that have not broken through the bone cortex.

Vascularized posterior interosseous pedicled bone grafting for infected forearm nonunion.

Infected forearm nonunion is challenging to treat. We have used a vascularized pedicled bone graft from the distal ulna based on the posterior interosseous artery to treat forearm nonunion with current or previous signs of infection in six patients. Bone union was achieved after a mean of 3.8 months. After a mean follow-up of 25.7 months, no signs of persistent or reactivation of infection were seen in any patient. The mean Quick DASH score significantly improved from 77.4 to 17.6. In addition, the active range of motion of the wrist improved significantly after surgery. In our patients, a vascularized posterior interosseous pedicled bone from the distal ulna is a reliable vascularized bone graft for managing infected forearm nonunion.

Intraoperative confirmation of ulnar collateral blood flow during radial artery harvesting using the "squirt test".

Hand ischemia is a major concern after radial artery harvesting for coronary revascularization. Although a number of preoperative tests have been described to assess the adequacy of ulnar collateral blood flow, many of them are subjective and unreliable. In addition, the presence of arterial connections between the radial and ulnar systems in the elbow and forearm and variability in forearm angiology imply that assessment of alternative blood supply to the hand can only be made once collateral branches of the radial artery have been divided. We describe a technique for intraoperative assessment of ulnar collateral blood flow after mobilization and division of collateral branches of the radial artery.

The effect of fixation with intramedullary rods and plates on fracture-site blood flow and bone remodeling in dogs.

Of fifty-seven adult dogs in which standard bilateral mid-ulnar fractures were produced, thirty-four had one side fixed with either a tight-fitting intramedullary Steinmann pin or a four-hole plate while the other side was not fixed, and twenty-three had a plate on one side and an intramedullary rod on the other. The blood flow at the fracture site, as determined by 85Sr clearance, was significantly less on the rod-fixed side than on the plate-fixed side at fourteen and ninety days, while the total ulnar blood flow was significantly higher on the rod-fixed than on the platefixed side at one and fourteen days but was the same on both sides thereafter. When the plate-fixed and rod-fixed fracture sites in the same dog were compared with respect to periosteal and endosteal bone formation as determined by tetracycline labeling anc microradiography, bone formation, like the blood flow, was greater in the callus of the ulnae fixed by plates. However, at ninety days, when healing had advanced to a point when the extent of union could be judged clinically, union had occurred in both ulnae of six of the seven dogs with both types of fixation studied at this time and was delayed in both ulnae of the remaining dog.

The extraosseous and intraosseous arterial anatomy of the adult elbow.

UNLABELLED: We investigated the extraosseous and intraosseous arterial anatomy of the human adult elbow. Twenty-two fresh adult cadaveric upper extremities were studied with a technique of combined India-ink and latex injection followed by chemical débridement. The intraosseous vascularity of twelve extremities was then evaluated with a rapid Spalteholz clearing technique. Our findings demonstrated consistent patterns of extraosseous and intraosseous vascular anatomy, which were organized into three vascular arcades: medial, lateral, and posterior. The medial arcade was formed by the superior and inferior ulnar collateral arteries and the posterior ulnar recurrent artery. The lateral arcade was formed by the radial and middle collateral, radial recurrent, and interosseous recurrent arteries. The posterior arcade was formed by the medial and lateral arcades and the middle collateral artery. The intraosseous circulation of the elbow, which was segmental in organization, appeared to be dependent on the local blood supply. The capitellum and the lateral aspect of the trochlea were supplied by posterior perforating vessels arising from the radial recurrent, radial collateral, and interosseous recurrent arteries. The medial aspect of the trochlea was supplied by a circumferential vascular ring originating from the inferior ulnar collateral artery. Watershed areas were apparent between the blood supplies to the medial and lateral aspects of the distal end of the humerus. The olecranon was richly supplied by vessels coursing along its medial aspect from the posterior ulnar recurrent artery and along its lateral aspect from the interosseous recurrent artery. The radial head had a dual extraosseous blood supply from a single branch of the radial recurrent artery, which supplied the head directly, and from additional vessels from both the radial and the interosseous recurrent artery, which penetrated the capsular insertion at the neck of the radius. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Our findings demonstrate that arterial contributions to the intraosseous circulation of the elbow are more specific than previously appreciated. The intraosseous circulation of the elbow is derived mainly from perforating vessels that arise from neighboring extraosseous arteries. These perforating arteries may be damaged by trauma or by extensile dissection during reconstruction of the elbow. An understanding of the extraosseous and intraosseous circulation of the elbow may help to avoid iatrogenic injury to the intraosseous circulation.

Computer simulation of blood flow in the human arm.

This paper considers a finite element method to characterize blood flow in the human arm arteries. A set of different pressure waveforms, which represent normal and diseased heart pulses, is used for the proximal boundary conditions, and a modified Windkessel model is used for the distal arterial boundary conditions. A comparison of the distal pressure and flow waveforms, for each different proximal pressure, is made to determine whether such waveforms are significantly altered from normal waveforms. The results show that the distal pressure and/or flow waveforms in certain cases are sufficiently different to be possibly used as a diagnostic indicator of an abnormal heart condition. Also considered is the effect of stenosis, change of compliance, and dilatation of the distal beds on the pressure and flow waveforms. A stenosis which has an area reduction of greater than approximately 75% is found to significantly alter both the distal pressure and flow waveforms. Changes in arterial compliance, however, do not strongly influence the waveforms. Dilatation of distal vascular beds is simulated by reducing the lumped resistance of these beds, and this reduction increases mean flow and decreases mean distal pressure, but has little effect on the basic shape of either the pressure or flow waveform.