Deviations from a typical development of the cerebellum in youth are associated with psychopathology, executive functions and educational outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Understanding deviations from typical brain development is a promising approach to comprehend pathophysiology in childhood and adolescence. We investigated if cerebellar volumes different than expected for age and sex could predict psychopathology, executive functions and academic achievement. METHODS: Children and adolescents aged 6-17 years from the Brazilian High-Risk Cohort Study for Mental Conditions had their cerebellar volume estimated using Multiple Automatically Generated Templates from T1-weighted images at baseline (n = 677) and at 3-year follow-up (n = 447). Outcomes were assessed using the Child Behavior Checklist and standardized measures of executive functions and school achievement. Models of typically developing cerebellum were based on a subsample not exposed to risk factors and without mental-health conditions (n = 216). Deviations from this model were constructed for the remaining individuals (n = 461) and standardized variation from age and sex trajectory model was used to predict outcomes in cross-sectional, longitudinal and mediation analyses. RESULTS: Cerebellar volumes higher than expected for age and sex were associated with lower externalizing specific factor and higher executive functions. In a longitudinal analysis, deviations from typical development at baseline predicted inhibitory control at follow-up, and cerebellar deviation changes from baseline to follow-up predicted changes in reading and writing abilities. The association between deviations in cerebellar volume and academic achievement was mediated by inhibitory control. CONCLUSIONS: Deviations in the cerebellar typical development are associated with outcomes in youth that have long-lasting consequences. This study highlights both the potential of typical developing models and the important role of the cerebellum in mental health, cognition and education.

Is waiting for rewards good for you? No association between impulsive choice, psychopathology, and functional outcomes in a large cohort sample.

Background: A stronger preference for immediate rewards has been reported in individuals with ADHD and other disorders. However, the consistency of the associations between this preference and psychiatric conditions as well as functional outcomes have been questioned. Research on its association with longitudinal outcomes is scarce. Methods: The current study used data on a choice delay task (CDT) from a school-based cohort of Brazilian children with those at higher risk for psychiatric disorders over-sampled (n = 1917). The sample included typically developing children (n = 1379), those with ADHD (n = 213), and other disorders. The frequency of the trials where children chose a larger later reward versus a smaller sooner reward was compared for those with ADHD and typically developing children. Cross-sectionally and longitudinally, the study also evaluated whether children's preference for larger delayed rewards at baseline predicted the presence of psychiatric disorders and functional life outcomes (academic performance, alcohol use, early pregnancy, criminal conviction, BMI). Results: Children with ADHD and their typically developing peers performed similarly on the CDT. Their baseline task performance was not related to psychiatric conditions or life outcomes. Conclusions: The current results raise questions regarding the use of the CDT with diverse populations and whether a preference for larger delayed rewards is predictive of positive long-term outcomes as widely assumed.