The role of TMPRSS6 and HFE variants in iron deficiency anemia in celiac disease.

We investigated the role of HFE C282Y, H63D, and TMPRSS6 A736V variants in the pathogenesis of iron deficiency anemia (IDA) in celiac disease (CD) patients, at diagnosis and after 1 year of gluten-free diet (GFD). Demographic and clinical features were prospectively recorded for all CD patients between 2013 and 2017. C282Y, H63D, and A736V variants were evaluated for CD patients and controls. Finally, 505 consecutive CD patients and 539 age-matched control subjects were enrolled. At diagnosis, 229 CD subjects had IDA (45.3%), with a subgroup of anemic patients (45.4%) presented persistent IDA at follow-up. C282Y allele frequency was significantly increased in CD compared with controls (1.1% vs 0.2%, P = .001), whereas H63D and A736V allele frequencies were similar among patients and controls (P = .92 and .84, respectively). At diagnosis, C282Y variant in anemic CD patients was significantly increased compared to nonanemic group (2% and 0.5%, P = .04). At follow-up, A736V was significantly increased in IDA persistent than in IDA not persistent (57.7% vs 35.2%, P < .0001). CD patients with H63D mutation showed higher Hb, MCV, serum iron, and ferritin levels than subjects without HFE mutations. Decreased hepcidin values were observed in anemic compared to nonanemic subjects at follow-up (1.22 ± 1.14 vs 2.08 ± 2.15, P < .001). This study suggests a protective role of HFE in IDA CD patients and confirms the role of TMPRSS6 in predicting oral iron response modulating hepcidin action on iron absorption. Iron supplementation therapeutic management in CD could depend on TMPRSS6 genotype that could predict persistent IDA despite iron supplementation and GFD.

Iron-refractory iron deficiency anemia (IRIDA) cases with 2 novel TMPRSS6 mutations.

Iron-refractory iron deficiency anemia (IRIDA) is a rarely diagnosed autosomal recessive disorder that presents with hypochromic, microcytic anemia due to mutations in TMPRSS6, which encodes matriptase-2. Contrary to classical iron deficiency anemia, serum hepcidin levels are found to be elevated in this disorder. Here, we report 5 cases from 4 unrelated families with inadequate response to iron therapy, who were consequently diagnosed as IRIDA. The mean age of the cases at diagnosis was 5.0 years (range: 0.7-11.3 years). All cases were either homozygous or compound heterozygous for missense or frameshift mutations in the TMPRSS6 gene, 2 of the mutations being novel (Cys410Ser and Leu689Pro). IRIDA should be considered in patients with findings of iron deficiency anemia unresponsive to oral iron therapy, whose serum ferritin levels are found normal or elevated.

Functional and clinical impact of novel TMPRSS6 variants in iron-refractory iron-deficiency anemia patients and genotype-phenotype studies.

Iron-refractory iron-deficiency anemia (IRIDA) is a rare autosomal-recessive disorder characterized by hypochromic microcytic anemia, low transferrin saturation, and inappropriate high levels of the iron hormone hepcidin. The disease is caused by variants in the transmembrane protease serine 6 (TMPRSS6) gene that encodes the type II serine protease matriptase-2, a negative regulator of hepcidin transcription. Sequencing analysis of the TMPRSS6 gene in 21 new IRIDA patients from 16 families with different ethnic origin reveal 17 novel mutations, including the most frequent mutation in Southern Italy (p.W590R). Eight missense mutations were analyzed in vitro. All but the p.T287N variant impair matriptase-2 autoproteotylic activation, decrease the ability to cleave membrane HJV and inhibit the HJV-dependent hepcidin activation. Genotype-phenotype studies in IRIDA patients have been so far limited due to the relatively low number of described patients. Our genotype-phenotype correlation analysis demonstrates that patients carrying two nonsense mutations present a more severe anemia and microcytosis and higher hepcidin levels than the other patients. We confirm that TMPRSS6 mutations are spread along the gene and that mechanistically they fully or partially abrogate hepcidin inhibition. Genotyping IRIDA patients help in predicting IRIDA severity and may be useful for predicting response to iron treatment.

A Case Report of a Feto-Placental Mosaicism Involving a Segmental Aneuploidy: A Challenge for Genome Wide Screening by Non-Invasive Prenatal Testing of Cell-Free DNA in Maternal Plasma.

Non-invasive prenatal testing (NIPT) using cell-free DNA can detect fetal chromosomal anomalies with high clinical sensitivity and specificity. In approximately 0.1% of clinical cases, the NIPT result and a subsequent diagnostic karyotype are discordant. Here we report a case of a 32-year-old pregnant patient with a 44.1 Mb duplication on the short arm of chromosome 4 detected by NIPT at 12 weeks' gestation. Amniocentesis was carried out at 18 weeks' gestation, followed by conventional and molecular cytogenetic analysis on cells from the amniotic fluid. SNP array analysis found a de novo deletion of 1.2 Mb at chromosome 4, and this deletion was found to be near the critical region of the Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome. A normal 46,XY karyotype was identified by G-banding analysis. The patient underwent an elective termination and molecular investigations on tissues from the fetus, and the placenta confirmed the presence of type VI true fetal mosaicism. It is important that a patient receives counselling following a high-risk call on NIPT, with appropriate diagnostic analysis advised before any decisions regarding the pregnancy are taken. This case highlights the importance of genetic counselling following a high-risk call on NIPT, especially in light of the increasing capabilities of NIPT detection of sub-chromosomal deletions and duplications.

Non-Invasive Prenatal Screening: The First Report of Pentasomy X Detected by Plasma Cell-Free DNA and Karyotype Analysis.

Pentasomy X is a sex chromosome anomaly caused by the presence of three extra X chromosomes in females (49,XXXXX instead of 46,XX) and is probably due to a nondisjunction during the meiosis. So far, only five cases prenatally diagnosed were described. The main features in 49,XXXXX karyotype include severe intellectual disability with delayed speech development, short stature, facial dysmorphisms, osseous and articular abnormalities, congenital heart malformations, and skeletal and limb abnormalities. Prenatal diagnosis is often difficult due to the lack of a clear echographic sign like nuchal translucency (NT), and mostly cases were postnatally described. We report the first case of a 49,XXXXX female that was detected by non-invasive prenatal screening (NIPS), quantitative fluorescence polymerase chain reaction (QF-PCR) and a fetal karyotype.

Peroxiredoxin-2: A Novel Regulator of Iron Homeostasis in Ineffective Erythropoiesis.

AIMS: Iron overload (IO) is a life-threatening complication of chronic hemolytic disorders such as ß-thalassemia. IO results in severe cellular oxidative damage, leading to organ failure. Peroxiredoxin-2 (Prx2), a typical 2-cysteine-(Cys)-peroxiredoxin, is an important component of the cytoprotective system, but its response to IO is still to be fully defined. RESULTS: We studied the effects of IO on Prx2-knockout mice (Prx2-/-). The absence of Prx2 enhanced toxicity due to IO on erythropoiesis. We found that IO failed to induce the typical hepcidin (Hamp) upregulation in Prx2-/- mice due to its failure to activate the signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3) with intact Jak2 signaling. In Prx2-/- mice, the loss of Hamp response was also observed after administration of a single dose of oral iron. When lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used to explore IL6-STAT3 activation in Prx2-/- mice, STAT3 activation and Hamp upregulation were once again defective. Treatment with PEP-fusion-recombinant-Prx2 (PEP Prx2) significantly increased STAT3 activation with upregulation of Hamp expression in both IO- and LPS-exposed Prx2-/- mice. We also confirmed the beneficial effects of PEP Prx2 on Hamp expression through STAT3 activation in ß-thalassemic mice. INNOVATION: We propose that Prx2 plays a key role in responding to cytotoxicity of IO, directly targeting STAT3-transcriptional factor in a Jak2-independent fashion and regulating Hamp in response to canonical stimuli. CONCLUSION: Collectively, our data highlight a novel role of Prx2 in iron homeostasis. Prx2 is a key cytoprotector against IO that is induced either by iron supplementation or due to chronic hemolysis as in ß-thalassemia. Prx2 is required to support STAT3 transcriptional activity and regulation of Hamp expression. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 28, 1-14.

How I Diagnose Non-thalassemic Microcytic Anemias.

Microcytic anemia is the most common form of anemia, characterized by reduced hemoglobin (Hb) synthesis associated with decreased red blood cell volume (MCV). It is a very heterogeneous group of diseases that may be either acquired or inherited. Microcytic hypochromic anemia can result from defects in globin (hemoglobinopathies or thalassemias) or heme synthesis or in iron availability, or acquisition by the erythroid precursors. Diagnosis of microcytic anaemia appears to be important in children/adolescents, especially to set, where possible, a treatment plan on the basis of the etiology and pathogenesis. After excluding the acquired causes of microcytic anemia that represent the most frequent etiology, according to the differential diagnosis, the analysis of genetic causes, mostly hereditary, must be considered. This review will consider acquired and hereditary microcytic anemias due to heme synthesis or to iron metabolism defects and their diagnosis.

The Interplay Between Peroxiredoxin-2 and Nuclear Factor-Erythroid 2 Is Important in Limiting Oxidative Mediated Dysfunction in ß-Thalassemic Erythropoiesis.

AIMS: ß-Thalassemia is a common inherited red cell disorder characterized by ineffective erythropoiesis and severe oxidative stress. Peroxiredoxin-2 (Prx2), a typical 2-cysteine peroxiredoxin, is upregulated during ß-thalassemic erythropoiesis, but its contribution to stress erythropoiesis, a common feature of thalassemia, is yet to be fully defined. RESULTS: Here, we showed that Prx2(-/-) mice displayed reactive oxygen species related abnormalities in erythropoiesis similar to that of Hbb(th3/+) mice associated with activation of redox response transcriptional factor nuclear factor-erythroid 2 (Nrf2). We generated ß-thalassemic mice genetically lacking Prx2 (Prx2(-/-)Hbb(th3/+)) and documented a worsened ß-thalassemic hematological phenotype with severe ineffective erythropoiesis. To further validate a key role of Prx2 in stress erythropoiesis, we administrated fused recombinant PEP1Prx2 to Hbb(th3/+) mice and documented a decrease in ineffective erythropoiesis. We further show that Prx2 effects are mediated by activation of Nrf2 and upregulation of genes that protect against oxidative damage such as gluthatione S-transferase, heme-oxygenase-1, and NADPH dehydrogenase quinone-1. INNOVATION: We propose Prx2 as a key antioxidant system and Nrf2 activation is a cellular adaptive process in response to oxidative stress, resulting in upregulation of antioxidant (antioxidant responsive element) genes required to ensure cell survival. CONCLUSION: Our data shed new light on adaptive mechanisms against oxidative damage through the interplay of Prx2 and Nrf2 during stress erythropoiesis and suggest new therapeutic options to decrease ineffective erythropoiesis by modulation of endogenous antioxidant systems.

Trasferrin receptor 2 gene regulation by microRNA 221 in SH-SY5Y cells treated with MPP⁺ as Parkinson's disease cellular model.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most frequent human neurodegenerations. The neurodegeneration in PD is related to cellular iron increase but the mechanisms involved in iron accumulation remain unclear. Transferrin receptor type 2 (TFR2) is a protein expressed on cell membrane and involved in the cellular iron uptake. We hypothesized that microRNA 221 could regulate the expression of TfR2 in an in vitro model of Parkinson's disease, SH-SY5Y cells treated with MPP⁺. The miRNA 221 was selected by in silico analysis of several miRNAs predicted to target the TFR2 gene in SHSY5Y cells treated with MPP⁺. Taqman miRNA assay was used to evaluate the expression of the selected miRNAs. Using a luciferase assay we demonstrated the inhibition of TFR2 by miRNA 221. We show that in PD cellular model, TFR2 expression is regulated by miRNA 221. TFR2 and miR 221 are inversely correlated in SHSY5Y cells during the treatment with MPP⁺. Moreover, overexpression of miRNA 221 decreases the expression of TFR2, respectively, at the mRNA and protein levels. The inhibition of endogenous miRNA 221 also is able to regulate TFR2. These data suggest that miRNA 221 regulate TFR2 in PD model.

Is the acronym IRIDA acceptable for slow responders to iron in the presence of TMPRSS6 mutations?

Iron refractory iron deficiency anemia (IRIDA) is a recently described autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in TMPRSS6, the gene encoding matriptase-2. Patients have inappropriately high levels of hepcidin. Hypochromic microcytic anemia refractory to oral iron and only partially responsive to parenteral iron is the hallmark of this disorder. We report six patients from three unrelated families with mutations in the TMPRSS6 gene, with three of the four identified mutations being novel. Although response to oral iron in IRIDA patients has been reported rarely before, all of our five patients receiving oral iron and our one patient supplemented with vitamin C responded to therapy at least to some extent. We think that IRIDA should be considered in the differential diagnosis of patients with findings of iron deficiency anemia responding inadequately to oral iron, particularly in countries with a high rate of consanguineous marriages like Turkey.