Phenotypic variability in traits related to flight dispersal in the wing dimorphic species Triatoma guasayana.

BACKGROUND: Triatoma guasayana is considered an emerging vector of Chagas disease in the Southern Cone of South America. The presence of a triatomine population with brachypterous individuals, in which both wings are reduced, has recently been reported for this species. The aim of the present study was to determine if flight-related traits varied across populations, if these traits could explain differences in flight capacity across populations and if flight-related traits are associated with geographic and/or climatic variation. METHODS: The study involved 66 male T. guasayana specimens from 10 triatomine populations. Digital images of wing, head and pronotum were used to estimate linear and geometric morphometric variables. Variations in size and shape were analysed using one-way analysis of variance and canonical variate analysis (CVA), respectively. Mantel tests were applied to analyse the relationship between morphometric and geographic distances, and the association between size measurements was analysed using Pearson's correlation. We explored covariation between size and shape variables using partial least square analyses (PLS). The association of geographic and climatic variables with size measurements was tested using linear regression analyses. We performed PLS analyses for shape measurements. RESULTS: Wing size differed significantly across triatomine populations. The CVA showed that wing shape of the brachypterous population is well discriminated from that of the other populations. The Mantel test showed a positive and significant association between wing shape and geographic distances. The heads of the brachypterous population were significantly larger than those of the other populations. Similar to wing shape, the head shape of the brachypterous population was well discriminated from those of the other populations. Pronotum width did not show significant differences across populations. Geographic and climatic factors were associated with size and shape of both the wing and head, but not with pronotum width. CONCLUSIONS: Most of the traits related to flight dispersal varied across populations. Wing shape and head shape were found to be better markers for differentiated morphological variation across populations. Head measurements also varied in accordance with this condition. Geographic and climatic variables were associated with most of the flight-related traits.

Resistance to deltamethrin by domestic and wild Triatoma infestans populations in the municipality of Toro Toro, Potosi, Bolivia.

BACKGROUND: Chemical control with pyrethroid insecticides has been effective in reducing endemic areas of distribution of Triatoma infestans in the Southern Cone, as well as Bolivia; this had considerably reduced the infestation of households in a large part of the territory. Nowadays, areas such as the Chaco and the Inter-Andean Valleys are regions where the reach of vector control strategies is becoming limited, and infestations of insecticide-treated households are reported more often. The objective of this study was to determine if the persistence of T. infestans stems from changes in the susceptibility of its toxicological profile in four communities in the municipality of Toro Toro, Potosi, Bolivia. METHODS: Susceptibility to deltamethrin of wild and domestic populations of T. infestans was evaluated in two stages (16 populations before and 13 populations after spraying) among DUs (structures in the intra- and peridomicile) and wild ecotopes, in four communities. Serial dilutions of deltamethrin in acetone (0.2 µl) were applied topically on standardized first-stage nymphs. Dose-response results were analyzed with the software PoloPlus and the relationships between lethal doses (LD) and resistance ratios (RR50) were determined. RESULTS: Different degrees of RR50 were detected among the populations before and after spraying (25.66-54.70 and 21.91-40.67, respectively), as well as in different ecotopes within a DU (DU JC 3, 28.06-36.13, in mixed structures of corrals and chicken coops; and DU JG 3, 46.27-25.70, in kitchen roofs), or in the wild environment of the community JG Sil (29.21-40.67). The mortality of insects undergoing diagnostic dose (DD) was never higher than 34%. CONCLUSION: The results obtained in this study showed resistance of T. infestans to deltamethrin in four communities, hence the complexity of this phenomenon is not only limited to the level of communities, but also applies to the microgeographical level, as in different ecotopes present within the DUs. This phenomenon should be considered while planning the activities of control programs.

Distribution of Pyrethroid Resistant Populations of Triatoma infestans in the Southern Cone of South America.

BACKGROUND: A number of studies published during the last 15 years showed the occurrence of insecticide resistance in Triatoma infestans populations. The different toxicological profiles and mechanisms of resistance to insecticides is due to a genetic base and environmental factors, being the insecticide selective pressure the best studied among the last factors. The studies on insecticide resistance on T. infestans did not consider the effect of environmental factors that may influence the distribution of resistance to pyrethroid insecticides. To fill this knowledge gap, the present study aims at studying the association between the spatial distribution of pyrethroid resistant populations of T. infestans and environmental variables. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A total of 24 articles reporting on studies that evaluated the susceptibility to pyrethroids of 222 field-collected T. infestans populations were compiled. The relationship between resistance occurrence (according to different criteria) with environmental variables was studied using a generalized linear model. The lethal dose that kills 50% of the evaluated population (LD50) showed a strong linear relationship with the corresponding resistance ratio (RR50). The statistical descriptive analysis of showed that the frequency distribution of the Log (LD50) is bimodal, suggesting the existence of two statistical groups. A significant model including 5 environmental variables shows the geographic distribution of high and low LD50 groups with a particular concentration of the highest LD50 populations over the region identified as the putative center of dispersion of T. infestans. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The occurrence of these two groups concentrated over a particular region that coincides with the area where populations of the intermediate cytogenetic group were found might reflect the spatial heterogeneity of the genetic variability of T. infestans, that seems to be the cause of the insecticide resistance in the area, even on sylvatic populations of T. infestans, never before exposed to pyrethroid insecticides, representing natural and wild toxicological phenotypes. The strong linear relationship found between LD50 and RR50 suggest RR50 might not be the best indicator of insecticide resistance in triatomines.

Caracterização e distribuição da resistência a deltametrina de populações silvestres e domésticas de Triatoma infestans da Bolívia

A persistência do Triatoma infestans e a transmissão contínua de Trypanosoma cruzinos Vales Inter-Andinos e no Grande Chaco da Bolívia são de grande importância. Na última década, focos silvestres desta espécie foram descritos em amplas áreas, na qual o alcance das estratégias de controle do vetor é limitado, sendo frequentes os relatos de resistência do T. infestans a inseticidas, que incluem populações silvestres e domésticas. O presente estudo teve como objetivo caracterizar o perfil de suscetibilidade (1) e hereditariedade (2) de populações silvestres e domésticas de T. infestans da Bolívia à deltametrina, bem como descrever a área de distribuição das populações resistentes a diferentes piretróides na América do Sul (3). 1) Foram avaliadas nove populações de T. infestans silvestres e domésticas do Grande Chaco e dos Vales Inter-Andinos da Bolívia. Três amostras silvestres de T. infestans(dark morph) do Chaco (Santa Cruz) foram suscetíveis a deltametrina (RR50 de <2), com 100% de mortalidade em resposta a dose diagnóstica (DD). A população doméstica de Villa Montes do Grande Chaco (Tarija) apresentou altos níveis de resistência (RR50 = 129,12 e 0% DD).

Do mesmo modo, as populações domésticas dos Vales Inter-Andinos (Cochabamba) apresentaram RR50 > 9, sendo as populações silvestres menos suscetíveis, com RR50 >5 do que SRL. 2) Cruzamentos experimentais foram realizados entre uma colônia suscetível RR50=0,62 (S), uma resistente RR50=129,12 (R) e com susceptibilidade reduzida RR50=5,04 (SR), em ambas as direções (♀x♂ e ♂x♀). O modo de herança do caráter resistente foi determinado pelo grau de dominância (DO) e dominância efetiva (DML). A hereditariedade (h2) foi estimada a partir da colônia R selecionada durante duas gerações, utilizando a dose diagnóstica (10 ng.i.a./ninfa).

O resultado para DO e DML (<1) indica que a resistência é um caráter de dominância incompleta e de herança autossômica. A Dose Letal 50% (DL50) para F1 de ♀Sx♂R e ♂Sx♀R foi de 0,74 e 3,97 respectivamente, revelando efeito de diluição da resistência inicialmente observada. Por outro lado, foi observado um incremento da RR50 de 2,25 vezes (F1) e 26,83 vezes (F2) na população selecionada em comparação com a colônia parental. 3) Foi compilado um total de 24 artigos que avaliaram a suscetibilidade a diferentes piretróides em 222 populações de T. infestans coletadas no campo dos países de Argentina, Bolívia, Brasil e Paraguai. A relação entre resistência aos inseticidas (avaliada por critérios diferentes) e diferentes variáveis ambientais foi estudada utilizando modelo linear generalizado. A DL50 mostrou uma forte relação linear com a RR50. Análise estatística descritiva demonstrou que a distribuição de frequência da Log (DL50) é bimodal, sugerindo a existência de dois grupos estatísticos (um grupo de menor e outro com maior Log (DL50). Finalmente, o modelo significativo incluindo 5 variáveis ambientais referentes a temperatura e precipitação, revelou concentração das populações com altas DL50 sobre a região identificada como o centro de dispersão de T. infestans. Os dados obtidos neste estudo contribuem com informações sobre a variabilidade do perfil de resistência, ocorrência e distribuição de populações resistentes na Bolívia