Cheonggukjang, a soybean paste fermented with B. licheniformis-67 prevents weight gain and improves glycemic control in high fat diet induced obese mice.

In this study, we investigated the anti-obesity effects of soybean paste-Cheonggukjang, fermented with poly gamma glutamic acid producing Bacillus licheniformis-67 in diet induced obese C57BL/6J mice. Forty male C57BL/6J mice aged 4 weeks were divided into four dietary groups; normal diet control, high fat diet control, high fat diet containing 30% of unfermented soybean and high fat diet containing 30% Cheonggukjang fermented with Bacillus licheniformis-67. After 13 weeks of dietary intervention the mice were sacrificed; serum and tissue samples were examined. Serum and hepatic lipid profile, blood glucose, insulin, leptin level were lower (<0.05) along with the body weight and epididymal fat pad weight in the 30% Cheonggukjang supplemented group compared with the high fat diet control group. The expression level of lipid anabolic gene was significantly decreased; whereas the expression level of lipid catabolic genes were significantly increased in the 30% Cheonggukjang supplemented group compared to the high fat diet control group. Collectively, these results suggested that intake of Cheonggukjang fermented with Bacillus licheniformis-67 significantly prevents obesity related parameters.

The Antioxidant Properties and Inhibitory Effects on HepG2 Cells of Chicory Cultivated Using Three Different Kinds of Fertilizers in the Absence and Presence of Pesticides.

The objective of this study was to explore the antioxidant levels and anticancer properties of chicory cultivated using three different kinds of fertilizers (i.e., developed, organic, and chemical) in the presence and absence of pesticides. Phenolic phytochemicals, including total polyphenols and flavonoids, and antioxidant activities, including reducing power, ABTS+ and DPPH radical scavenging activity, were analyzed using several antioxidant assays. HepG2 cell viability was analyzed using the MTT assay. The antioxidant properties of chicory were found to increase when cultivated with chemical fertilizer in the absence of pesticides. On the other hand, antioxidant capacity was higher in chicory cultivated with eco-developed fertilizer even in the presence of pesticides. Chicory grown using eco-developed or organic fertilizer was more effective in suppressing the proliferation of HepG2 cells when compared to chicory grown with chemical fertilizer. This effect was time dependent, regardless of treatment with or without pesticides. In conclusion, the antioxidant activity of chicory were affected by the presence or absence of pesticides. However, developed and organic fertilizers showed a strong anti-proliferative effect against HepG2 cells, regardless of the presence or absence of pesticides.

Salicornia herbacea prevents weight gain and hepatic lipid accumulation in obese ICR mice fed a high-fat diet.

BACKGROUND: Foods that are rich in fat and or sodium chloride promote obesity and associated diseases, whereas intake of dietary fiber averts obesity development. Salicornia herbacea (SH) is a rich source of dietary fiber and high in sodium chloride; therefore, we investigated whether replacing common salt with SH in a high-fat diet could prevent obesity development. RESULTS: Mice were divided into five groups: group ND was fed a normal diet, group HD was fed a high-fat diet, group HD-NaCl was fed a high fat diet with sodium chloride 10 g kg(-1) , group HD-CL was fed a high-fat diet with cellulose 30 g kg(-1) and group HD-SH was fed a high-fat diet with SH powder 50 g kg(-1) . The amount of sodium chloride and cellulose added in the respective diet was equivalent to their amount in SH. Data from our study showed that, SH supplementation significantly decreased body weight gain, liver weight, hepatic triglyceride, serum leptin and insulin, along with the mRNA level of key lipid anabolic genes such as SREBP-1c, PPARγ and FAS compared to the HD group. CONCLUSION: The results of this study demonstrated that SH is a potential natural anti-obesity agent that can be used in place of sodium chloride.

Postprandial glucose-lowering effects of fermented red ginseng in subjects with impaired fasting glucose or type 2 diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Red ginseng is prepared by steaming raw ginseng, a process believed to increase the pharmacological efficacy. Further bioconversion of red ginseng through fermentation is known to increase its intestinal absorption and bioactivity, and bioconversion diminishes the toxicity of red ginseng's metabolite. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of daily supplementation with fermented red ginseng (FRG) on glycemic status in subjects with impaired fasting glucose or type 2 diabetes. METHODS: This study was a four-week long, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Forty-two subjects with impaired fasting glucose or type 2 diabetes were randomly allocated to two groups assigned to consume either the placebo or fermented red ginseng (FRG) three times per day for four weeks. Fasting and postprandial glucose profiles during meal tolerance tests were assessed before and after the intervention. RESULTS: FRG supplementation led to a significant reduction in postprandial glucose levels and led to an increase in postprandial insulin levels compared to the placebo group. There was a consistently significant improvement in the glucose area under the curve (AUC) in the FRG group. However, fasting glucose, insulin, and lipid profiles were not different from the placebo group. CONCLUSION: Daily supplementation with FRG lowered postprandial glucose levels in subjects with impaired fasting glucose or type 2 diabetes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01826409.

Lactobacillus brevis OPK-3 isolated from kimchi inhibits adipogenesis and exerts anti-inflammation in 3T3-L1 adipocyte.

BACKGROUND: Kimchi is a traditional fermented food in Korea that contains various unique microorganisms. Diverse bacteria are involved in the process of Kimchi fermentation and the healthful advantages; one of the major species is Lactobacillus. We investigated whether lactic acid bacteria isolated from Kimchi (KLAB) are capable of reducing intracellular lipid accumulation by downregulating the expression of adipogenesis and lipogenesis promoting genes in differentiating 3T3-L1 cells. RESULTS: KLAB (Lactobacillus brevis OPK-3) mediated dose-dependent inhibition of adipocyte differentiation, intracellular triglyceride accumulation and glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) activity. The expression of transcription factors such as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein α involved in adipogenesis was markedly decreased by the KLAB treatment. Terminal adipogenic marker, e.g. adipocyte fatty acid binding protein (aP2), lipoprotein lipase, liver X receptor α, leptin and GPDH were significantly downregulated by KLAB treatment compared to untreated control. Moreover, cytokine genes, such as tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 mRNA expressions level were also decreased, whereas adiponectin mRNA level was upregulated by KLAB. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that the KLAB inhibits lipid accumulation in the differentiating adipocyte through downregulating the expression of adipogenic transcription factors and other specific genes involved in lipid metabolism.

Quercetin-rich onion peel extract suppresses adipogenesis by down-regulating adipogenic transcription factors and gene expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

BACKGROUND: Onion peel contains a high amount of quercetin, which has been reported to have anti-cholesterol, antithrombotic and insulin-sensitizing properties. This study aimed to elucidate the anti-adipogenic effects of quercetin-rich onion peel extract (OPE) and to compare it with commercially available quercetin using 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. RESULTS: Without affecting cell viability, both OPE and quercetin averted adipogenesis, as characterized by dose-dependent decreases in intracellular triglyceride content and glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase activity, but the effect was more pronounced with OPE than with quercetin. The mRNA expression levels of key adipogenic genes such as PPARγ, C/EBPα, FABP4, aP2 and LPL were decreased in a dose-dependent manner by both OPE and quercetin. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that OPE treatment significantly prevents intracellular lipid accumulation via hyperactivation of genes regulating lipolysis as compared with quercetin alone.

Anti-obesity effects of traditional and standardized meju in high-fat diet-induced obese C57BL/6J mice.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the anti-obesity effects of two types of meju in diet induced obese C57BL/6J mice. Animals were randomly divided into 4 dietary group (n = 10); normal diet, high fat diet with 30% soybean, high fat diet with 30% traditional meju, high fat diet with 30% standardized meju. After 16 weeks, after animals were sacrificed. It was observed that the high fat diet with 30% traditional meju and high fat diet with 30% standardized meju significantly reduced body weight gain, epididymal fat weight, serum triglyceride along with serum insulin and leptin levels compared to the high fat diet with 30% soybean. And also, the expression levels of hepatic lipid anabolic genes were significantly decreased in the high fat diet with 30% traditional meju and high fat diet with 30% standardized meju compared to the high fat diet with 30% soybean. In conclusion, the assessment of all the obesity markers strongly advocate the anti-obesity effect of traditional as well as standardized meju in diet induce obesity conditions.

A traditional Korean fermented food, Gochujang exerts anti-hypertensive effects, regardless of its high salt content by regulating renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system in SD rats.

The current study aimed to investigate the distinct outcomes of table salt and salt in Gochujang on blood pressure (BP). Animals were divided into 3 groups, including normal diet (NS, 0.5 % NaCl), high-salt diet (HS, normal diet with 8 % NaCl), or high-salt Gochujang diet (HSG, normal diet with Gochujang containing 8 % NaCl). Compared to the NS groups, the HS group showed significantly increased systolic blood pressure (SBP), while the HSG group did not elevate SBP. The HS group had lower serum angiotensin II and aldosterone levels than the NS group, while the HSG group showed higher levels of those parameters than the HS group. The renal mRNA expression related to the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) was significantly higher in the HS group than the NS group, while the HSG group had markedly lower expression of those markers. The urinary and fecal Na+/K+ proportion was higher in both HS and HSG groups relative to the NS group, but the HSG group showed a decreased Na+/K+ ratio in urine and feces compared to the HS group. Moreover, the HS group had a significantly upregulated mRNA level of Na+/HCO3- co-transporter (Slc4a4) in the kidney than the NS group, whereas the HSG group showed downregulated mRNA expression of Slc4a4 compared to the HS group. This study demonstrates that Gochujang has anti-hypertensive effects regardless of its high salt content and provide the evidence regarding the distinct impacts between salt in Gochujang and the table salt.

Doenjang Ameliorates Diet-Induced Hyperlipidemia and Hepatic Oxidative Damage by Improving Lipid Metabolism, Oxidative Stress, and Inflammation in ICR Mice.

Hyperlipidemia, characterized by elevated cholesterol, lipids, and triglycerides in the bloodstream, is linked to hepatic oxidative damage. Doenjang, a traditional Korean condiment made from fermented soybeans, is known for its health benefits, yet its anti-hyperlipidemic effects remain understudied. Our study aimed to assess the hypolipidemic and hepatic protective effects of Doenjang on male ICR mice fed a high-fat cholesterol diet for 8 weeks. Mice were divided into three groups: the normal diet (ND), the high-fat cholesterol diet (HD), and the Doenjang-supplemented HD diet (DS) group. Doenjang supplementation significantly regulated total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL cholesterol, and HDL cholesterol levels compared to the HD group. It also downregulated lipogenic genes, including PPARγ, FAS, and ACC, and positively influenced the cholesterol metabolism-related genes HMGCR and LXR. Moreover, Doenjang intake increased serum glutathione levels, activated oxidative stress defense genes (NRF2, SOD, GPx1, and CAT), positively modulated inflammation genes (NF-kB and IL6) in hepatic tissue, and reduced malondialdehyde levels. Our findings highlight the effectiveness of traditional Doenjang in preventing diet-induced hyperlipidemia and protecting against hepatic oxidative damage.

In vitro and in vivo genotoxicity evaluation of ALP1018, a nanomineral food supplement.

The use of nano-based dietary supplements is increasing around the world, as nanotechnology can help enhance nutrient bioavailability. ALP1018 is a newly developed iron-zinc complex supplement designed as a nanoformulation to improve the efficacy of iron and zinc supplementation. However, safety concerns have been raised, as there is no clear evaluation of ALP1018 toxicity. The goal of this study was to determine the potential mutagenicity and genotoxicity of ALP1018 through three standard screenings: the Ames test, which evaluates bacterial reverse mutations; the in vitro test of chromosomal aberration in Chinese hamster lung cells; and the in vivo micronucleus assay using ICR mice. ALP1018 showed no mutagenic effect, as no increase was observed in the presence or absence of metabolic activation (S9 mix) in revertant colonies on all the bacterial strains used in the Ames test. No structural chromosomal abnormalities were observed in the presence or absence of the S9 mix in mammalian cells used in the chromosomal aberration assay. In the micronucleus test, the frequency of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes was not significantly increased in mouse bone marrow cells. Based on these findings, we can conclude that ALP1018 is safe to use and has no mutagenic or genotoxic potential.

The influence of the Korean traditional Chungkookjang on variables of metabolic syndrome in overweight/obese subjects: study protocol.

BACKGROUND: Metabolic syndrome is a set of disorders that increases the risk of developing cardiovascular disease. The primary target of treatment of patients with metabolic syndrome is therapeutic lifestyle change. Numerous preclinical study have reported positive effects of chungkookjang in in vivo models of diabetes and obesity, but there is a paucity of controlled clinical trials on variables of metabolic syndrome in obese subjects. Thus, the objective of this trial is to examine the effect of chungkookjang compared to placebo on variables of metabolic syndrome in overweight/obese subjects. METHODS: This double-blind randomized controlled crossover trial will be conducted on 120 overweight/obese subjects; aged 19-29 years. Subjects will be recruited from the Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, South Korea. Enrolled subjects will be randomly assigned to two groups of equal number; one group received 35 g of chungkookjang (n = 60) and the other group received placebo (n = 60) on a regular daily basis for 12 weeks. After a 12-week washout period, the groups will be crossed over. In addition to anthropometric measures and blood pressure, glucose parameter, lipid profile, adipocytokine, and carnitine assay will be determined at baseline and 12 week. Also, safety will be assessing by measuring total bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase, alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase, total protein, albumin, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and creatine kinase at baseline and 12 weeks. 24-hour dietary recalls were collected at the baseline and at the end of the trial. DISCUSSION: This trial will evaluate the effects of chungkookjang on variables of metabolic syndrome in overweight/obese subjects. The results of this study may contribute to the reduction of risk factor for metabolic syndrome caused by obesity. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinical trials NCT01811511.

Blackcurrant Alleviates Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS)-Induced Colitis in Mice.

Previous studies have reported that anthocyanin (ACN)-rich materials have beneficial effects on ulcerative colitis (UC). Blackcurrant (BC) has been known as one of the foods rich in ACN, while studies demonstrating its effect on UC are rare. This study attempted to investigate the protective effects of whole BC in mice with colitis using dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). Mice were orally given whole BC powder at a dose of 150 mg daily for four weeks, and colitis was induced by drinking 3% DSS for six days. Whole BC relieved symptoms of colitis and pathological changes in the colon. The overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1ß, TNF-α, and IL-6 in serum and colon tissues was also reduced by whole BC. In addition, whole BC significantly lowered the levels of mRNA and protein of downstream targets in the NF-κB signaling pathway. Furthermore, BC administration increased the expression of genes related to barrier function: ZO-1, occludin, and mucin. Moreover, the whole BC modulated the relative abundance of gut microbiota altered with DSS. Therefore, the whole BC has demonstrated the potential to prevent colitis through attenuation of the inflammatory response and regulation of the gut microbial composition.

Korean fermented soybean paste (Doenjang) has anti-obesity and anti-hypertensive effects via the renin-angiotensin system (RAS) in high-fat diet-induced obese rats.

The health-beneficial outcomes of doenjang, a Korean fermented food have been questioned due to its high salt content; moreover, the detailed underlying mechanisms of its health beneficial effects are not fully investigated. Thus, this study aimed to investigate doenjang's anti-obesity effects, anti-hypertensive effects, and its underlying mechanisms in high-fat diet -induced obesity. Sprague-Dawley rats fed with normal diet (ND), high-fat diet (HD), HD with 8% additive salt (HDS), or HD with doenjang containing 8% salt (HDJ) for 13 weeks. Compared to HD and HDS groups, the HDJ group had lower body and epididymal fat tissue weight gain and showed hypotrophy and hypoplasia. The RAS-related mRNA levels in the adipose tissue, including Renin and Ace were downregulated in the HDJ group compared to HD and HDS groups. Additionally, HDJ groups had significant improvements in systolic blood pressure, serum RAS-associated parameters (e.g., angiotensin II and aldosterone), renal mRNA levels related to RAS (e.g., angiotensin II receptor type 1 and 2), and aldosterone-associated mRNA expressions (e.g., mineralocorticoid receptor) in the kidney of HD-induced obese rats. Most importantly, HDS and HDJ groups showed distinct outcomes regarding adipogenesis and electrolytes metabolism, even though both diets contain a high level of salt. HDS group showed a higher epididymal fat tissue weight, mass, and adipocyte size than HDJ group. In addition, compared with HDJ group, HDS group significantly decreased the release of Na+ and K+ throughout the urine and feces. The present study addresses that doenjang has anti-obesity effects and anti-hypertensive effects by activating RAS in the adipose tissue and kidney, respectively. Additionally, this study also demonstrates that salt in doenjang and the additive salt differently influences adipogenesis and electrolytes metabolism, supporting doenjang has health advantageous effects regardless of its high salt contents.

Kimchi and Leuconostoc mesenteroides DRC 1506 Alleviate Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS)-Induced Colitis via Attenuating Inflammatory Responses.

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is caused by inflammation only in the mucosa of the colon, and its incidence is increasing worldwide. The intake of probiotics is known to have a beneficial effect on the development of UC. In this study, we investigated the alleviating effects of kimchi (KC), a fermented food rich in probiotics, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides DRC 1506 (DRC) isolated from kimchi on UC. A freeze-dried kimchi suspension and DRC were orally given to mice at a dose of 1 × 109 CFU/day for 3 weeks. Furthermore, 3% dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) in drinking water was given to induce UC. The KC and DRC groups reduced symptoms of colitis, such as disease activity index, decrease in colon length, colon weight-to-length ratio, and pathological damage to the colon caused by DSS treatment. The KC and DRC groups decreased the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokine (TNF-α) and increased anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) in the colon tissues. At the mRNA and protein expression levels in the colon tissue, KC and DRC groups downregulated inflammatory factors and upregulated tight junction-related factors. Therefore, DRC, as well as KC supplementation, are potent in alleviating UC by improving the inflammatory response and mucosal barrier function in the colon.

Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Tenebrio molitor (Mealworm) Using Nuruk Extract Concentrate and an Evaluation of Its Nutritional, Functional, and Sensory Properties.

Enzymatic protein hydrolysis is a well-established method for improving the quality of dietary proteins, including edible insects. Finding effective enzymes from natural sources is becoming increasingly important. This study used nuruk extract concentrate (NEC), an enzyme-rich fermentation starter, to produce protein hydrolysate from defatted Tenebrio molitor (also called mealworm, MW). The nutritional, functional, and sensorial properties of the hydrolysate were then compared to those obtained using commercial proteases (alcalase and flavourzyme). The protease activities of the crude nuruk extract (CNE), NEC, alcalase, and flavourzyme were 6.78, 12.71, 11.07, and 12.45 units/mL, respectively. The degree of hydrolysis and yield of MW hydrolysis by NEC were 15.10 and 35.92% (w/w), respectively. MW hydrolysate was obtained using NEC and had a significantly higher free amino acid content (90.37 mg/g) than alcalase (53.01 mg/g) and flavourzyme (79.64 mg/g) hydrolysates. Furthermore, the NEC hydrolysis of MW increased the antioxidant and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory activity, with IC50 values of 3.07 and 0.15 mg/mL, respectively. The enzymatic hydrolysis also improved sensory properties, including umaminess, sweetness, and saltiness. Overall, this study found that the NEC hydrolysis of MW outperformed commercial proteases regarding nutritional quality, sensory attributes, and biological activity. Therefore, nuruk could potentially replace commercial proteases, lowering the cost of enzymatic protein hydrolysis.

Soy Sauce Lowers Body Weight and Fat Mass in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Rats.

Soy sauce (SS) is a traditional fermented seasoning. Although fermented foods have diverse health beneficial effects, SS intake has been discouraged because of its high salt level. This study was designed to evaluate the antiobesity outcomes of SS and the potential involvement of salt content in SS by adding a high-salt group. Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned into four groups: normal diet (ND, 10% fat of total kcal), high-fat diet (HD, 60% fat of total kcal), HD with salt water (HDSW, NaCl = 8%), and HD with SS (HDSS, NaCl = 8%). SS significantly decreased HD-induced body weight gain and lipogenic gene expression without affecting food consumption. Moreover, SS also reduced hepatic injury and lipid accumulation, and also improved hyperlipidemia. Furthermore, SS decreased the mRNA levels related to obesity-derived inflammatory responses, while HDSW did not change the levels of those markers. These observations indicate that SS ameliorates obesity in HD-fed obese rats by attenuating dyslipidemia. Moreover, SS might also have an anti-inflammatory effect in HD-induced obesity, which requires further investigation. Most importantly, SS offers these beneficial effects regardless of its high salt content, implying that different dietary salt sources lead to the distinct health outcomes. In conclusion, the findings of this study improve the understanding of the functional effect of SS.

Hippophae rhamnoides L. leaf extracts alleviate diabetic nephropathy via attenuation of advanced glycation end product-induced oxidative stress in db/db mice.

Diabetes mellitus leads to chronic complications, such as nephropathy. Diabetic complications are closely related to advanced glycation end products (AGEs). Excessive formation and accumulation of AGEs in diabetic renal diseases lead to excessive oxidative stress, resulting in chronic renal failure. The leaves of Hippophae rhamnoides L. (sea buckthorn leaves; SBL) show biological benefits, including antioxidant effects. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of SBL on kidney damage in db/db mice. The SBL extract was orally administered at 100 and 200 mg kg-1 for 12 weeks to db/db mice. Histological changes and the urine albumin/creatinine ratio were relieved, and the accumulation of AGEs in kidney glomeruli decreased following SBL treatment. Moreover, the SBL extract reduced the expression of AGEs, the receptor for AGEs, and NADPH oxidase 4, but upregulated glyoxalase 1 in the diabetic renal tissue. Urinary excretion levels and expression of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine as a biomarker of oxidative stress decreased after SBL treatment in the renal tissue. Furthermore, SBL attenuated oxidative stress in diabetic kidneys by reducing AGE accumulation, thereby ameliorating renal damage. Therefore, from these results, we infer that the SBL extract can act as a potential therapeutic agent for diabetic renal complications caused by AGEs.

Comparison of the laxative effects of Korean Gochujang containing different microbiota on loperamide-induced constipation in ICR mice.

The prevalence of constipation, one of the common gastrointestinal (GI) diseases, has been gradually increasing. Gochujang, a traditional Korean fermented paste, has various microbiota and exerts diverse health beneficial effects. However, the ameliorative effect of Gochujang on constipation is unexplored. Seven-week-old ICR mice were divided into five groups: the normal group, the loperamide (LOP) group, the LOP + mosapride citrate (3 mg per kg BW, MOSA) treated group, the LOP + BMG Gochujang (2 g per kg BW) group, and the LOP + VMG Gochujang (2 g per kg BW) group. Gochujang alleviated constipation by increasing defecation frequency and water content in feces by reducing AQP3 mRNA expression. Additionally, Gochujang increased GI transit time and excitatory neurotransmitter levels and decreased inhibitory neurotransmitter levels. Moreover, Gochujang reduced mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation and increased the c-Kit/SCF signaling pathway, suggesting that Gochujang regulates the enteric nervous system (ENS). Interestingly, BMG and VMG differently influenced the gut microbiota composition. Both Gochujang groups significantly decreased the Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes ratio compared to the LOP group. However, among Firmicutes genera, Acetatifactor was only reduced in BMG, and VMG only decreased Caproiciproducens and Acutalibacter. In summary, Gochujang effectively alleviated LOP-induced constipation outcomes regardless of their different microbial communities by ameliorating GI motility and changing the gut microbiota composition.

Gochujang Ameliorates Hepatic Inflammation by Improving Dysbiosis of Gut Microbiota in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Mice.

Abnormal fat accumulation with gut microbiota dysbiosis results in hepatic inflammation by upregulating the release of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and inflammatory cytokine. Gochujang, a traditional fermented condiment, has beneficial effects, such as anti-colonic inflammatory effects. However, Gochujang has been controversial because of its high salt content (the Korean Paradox). Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the preventative effects of Gochujang on hepatic inflammation and related gut microbiota through discussing the Korean Paradox. The mice were divided into groups including a normal diet (ND), high-fat diet (HD), HD with salt (SALT), HD with a high percentage of beneficial microbiota Gochujang (HBM), and HD with diverse beneficial microbiota Gochujang (DBM). Gochujang markedly reduced lipid accumulation, hepatic injury, and inflammation response. Furthermore, Gochujang attenuated protein expression involved in the JNK/IκB/NF-κB pathway. Additionally, Gochujang regulated the gut microbiota-derived LPS production and Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio. Gochujang regulated the levels of gut microbiota such as Bacteroides, Muribaculum, Lactobacillus, and Enterorhabdus, which were correlated with hepatic inflammation. Salt did not have foregoing effects, meaning that the salt content in Gochujang did not affect its anti-inflammatory effect. In conclusion, Gochujang showed anti-hepatic inflammation effects via reduced lipid accumulation, hepatic injury, and inflammatory response together with reorganization of gut microbiota dysbiosis regardless of salt content and the difference of micro bacteria composition.

Gochujang Consumption Prevents Metabolic Syndrome in a High-Fat Diet Induced Obese Mouse Model.

High-fat and high-salt diets are risk factors for metabolic syndrome development. However, gochujang, which has a high salt content, possesses antiobesity properties in cell and animal models. We aimed to evaluate the effects of Sunchang traditional and modern factory produced gochujang on metabolic syndrome factors in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice. For 14 weeks, 4-week-old C57BL/6J male mice were separated into five groups and fed a normal diet (ND), a high-fat diet only (HD), a HD with salt (SALT), a HD with traditional Sunchang gochujang (TS), and HD with modern factory made Sunchang gochujang (FS). Compared to HD and SALT groups, the gochujang groups had lower body weight, blood leptin, and insulin levels with reduced Homeostatic Model Assessment of Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) index and improved serum and liver lipid profiles. In addition, gochujang supplemented groups exhibited a significant reduction in mRNA expression of anabolic lipid metabolism related factors; PPARγ, CEBPα, and FABP4, and a significant increase in mRNA expression of energy expenditure-related factors; PPARα and CPT1. Protein expressions of SREBP1 were downregulated in the gochujang fed groups. TS and FS intakes improved obesity in HFD-induced obese mice. Compared to the gochujang groups, the SALT group did not exhibit any of those benefits suggesting that the high salt content of gochujang has different effects compared with added salt alone. Our findings provide evidence that gochujang could be a functional food to attenuate metabolic syndrome.