Epidemiology of primary rubella infection in the Central African Republic: data from measles surveillance, 2007-2014.

BACKGROUND: Although rubella is generally considered a benign childhood disease, infection of a pregnant woman can cause foetal congenital rubella syndrome, which results in embryo-foetal disease and malformations. The syndrome is still a public health problem in developing countries where the vaccine has not yet been introduced, such as the Central African Republic (CAR). The aim of the study reported here was to define the epidemiology of primary rubella infection, in order to determine its effect on morbidity rates in the country. METHODS: Data derived from epidemiological surveillance of measles and rubella were analysed retrospectively between 1 January 2007 and 31 December 2014. The database includes cases of suspected measles, according to the WHO clinical case definition. In this algorithm, samples that are negative or doubtful by ELISA for measles (presence of immunoglobulin M) are tested in another ELISA for detection of rubella-specific IgM. Descriptive analyses were conducted for socio-demographic characteristics, including age, sex and health region, for patients tested for rubella. RESULTS: Of the sera tested for rubella, 30.2 % (425/1409) were positive, 62.3 % (878/1409) were negative, and 7.5 % (106/1409) were doubtful. Among the 425 positive cases, 213 (50.1 %) were female and 212 (40.9 %) were male with a sex ratio of 1.03. The mean age was 8 years (range, 6-37 years). The highest prevalence (47.3 %; 116/425) was seen in 2007 and the lowest (8.9 %; 11/425) in 2012. Primary infections were always more frequent during the first 3 months of the year, with a peak at the same time, between January and February which is the hottest period of the year in the CAR. In both sexes, rubella IgM was rarely found before the age of 1 year (0.5 %; 2/425). The highest rate (43.5 %; 185/425) was observed at ages 5-9 years; however, at least 8 % (18/213) of girls aged 15 or more had primary infections. CONCLUSIONS: Sentinel sites for surveillance of congenital rubella syndrome are urgently needed, and introduction of vaccination against rubella in the Expanded Programme of Immunization should be considered, to ensure immunization of girls of reproductive age.

Effectiveness of Xpert MTB/RIF and the Line Probe Assay tests for the rapid detection of drug-resistant tuberculosis in the Central African Republic.

The Xpert MTB/RIF and Line Probe Assay (LPA) tests are more and more frequently used in mycobacteria testing laboratories for the rapid diagnosis of multi-drug resistance (MDR-TB). In this study, we demonstrate the effectiveness of these tests in the Central African Republic. Rifampicin resistance cases detected by the Xpert MTB/RIF during the year 2020 are also underwent first- and second-line LPA, and a first-line of drug susceptibility testing (DST) on solid medium and we compared these results. 101 rifampicin resistance cases based on the Xpert MTB/RIF were detected. Mean age was 34 years [16-81]. The 20-40 years age group represented 73.2% and the male-to-female sex ratio was 1.9:1. Patient profiles were dominated by treatment failure cases (40.6%) followed by relapsed cases (30.7%) and new cases (18.8%). These 101 rifampicin resistance were also detected with the first-line LPA and were confirmed by the DST. Similarly, the isoniazid results obtained with the first-line LPA, were confirmed by the DST, giving a concordance of 100% for these antibiotics. Rifampicin resistance were for the most part due to the absence of the WT8 sequence (56%) and the presence of the Mut3 mutation (53.4%). The majority of the isoniazid resistance (94.2%) were due to the Mut1 mutation in the katG gene and 4.2% of the cases involved both the katG gene and the inhA gene promoter with the Mut1 mutation. The second-line LPA test no resistance to second-line antibiotics. This study demonstrated the effectiveness of the Xpert MTB/RIF and the LPA tests for the rapid diagnosis of MDR-TB in the Central African Republic. However, due to their high cost, these tests have not been extensively deployed in the country. Public authorities and their TB-partners can help make these molecular tests more accessible to fight MDR-TB in the country.

[Latent tuberculosis infection in children in Bangui: about 524 cases exposed at home to index cases of positive microscopy pulmonary tuberculosis]. / Infection tuberculeuse latente chez l'enfant à Bangui: à propos de 524 cas exposés à domicile aux cas index de tuberculose pulmonaire à microscopie positive.

INTRODUCTION: in endemic areas, despite BCG vaccination, the risk of developing tuberculosis (TB) in young children is high after exposure to adults with tuberculosis. The purpose of this study is to reduce the risk of active tuberculosis in children experiencing household exposure to adult index cases. METHODS: we conducted a cross-sectional multi-site study (April 2016- January 2019) of children aged 0 to 59 months experiencing household exposure to index cases. They were screened and followed up at the pediatric center in Bangui. RESULTS: five hundred twenty four children were included in the study. The average age of patients was 2 years and 1 month and sex ratio (male/female) was 1.02; more than eighty-eight percent (88.5%) of contacts had received a BCG vaccination versus 11.5% who were unvaccinated. In more than half of the cases (52%), contacts and index cases had shared the same room and daily contact time had been greater than 12h in 56% of households; more than nine percent (9.35%) of contacts had positive tuberculin skin (IDR) test. All children received chemoprophylaxis with rifampicin + isoniazid, according to the national guidelines and, despite this, 14 or 2.67% of patients developed active tuberculosis, including 13 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis and one with ganglionic tuberculosis. CONCLUSION: chemoprophylaxis of tuberculosis significantly reduced the risk of TB in children experiencing household exposure to index cases.

Serotype distribution and antimicrobial resistance of human Salmonella enterica in Bangui, Central African Republic, from 2004 to 2013.

BACKGROUND: Limited epidemiological and antimicrobial resistance data are available on Salmonella enterica from sub-Saharan Africa. We determine the prevalence of resistance to antibiotics in isolates in the Central African Republic (CAR) between 2004 and 2013 and the genetic basis for resistance to third-generation cephalosporin (C3G). METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A total of 582 non-duplicate human clinical isolates were collected. The most common serotype was Typhimurium (n = 180, 31% of the isolates). A randomly selected subset of S. Typhimurium isolates were subtyped by clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat polymorphism (CRISPOL) typing. All but one invasive isolate tested (66/68, 96%) were associated with sequence type 313. Overall, the rates of resistance were high to traditional first-line drugs (18-40%) but low to many other antimicrobials, including fluoroquinolones (one resistant isolate) and C3G (only one ESBL-producing isolate). The extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing isolate and three additional ESBL isolates from West Africa were studied by whole genome sequencing. The blaCTX-M-15 gene and the majority of antimicrobial resistance genes found in the ESBL isolate were present in a large conjugative IncHI2 plasmid highly similar (> 99% nucleotide identity) to ESBL-carrying plasmids found in Kenya (S. Typhimurium ST313) and also in West Africa (serotypes Grumpensis, Havana, Telelkebir and Typhimurium). CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: Although the prevalence of ESBL-producing Salmonella isolates was low in CAR, we found that a single IncHI2 plasmid-carrying blaCTX-M-15 was widespread among Salmonella serotypes from sub-Saharan Africa, which is of concern.

Epidemiologic profile of measles in Central African Republic: A nine year survey, 2007-2015.

INTRODUCTION: Measles remains a major public health problem in many developing countries in which vaccination coverage is poor, as is the case in the Central African Republic (CAR). At the beginning of the 2000s, a surveillance system was established in the country, and samples from suspected cases are regularly tested in the laboratory for serological confirmation. Since 2007, when case-by-case monitoring with standardized laboratory databases and monitoring, was set up, no assessment have been performed. Therfore, 9 years later it seemed appropriate to make a first assessment. The aim of the study reported here was to describe the epidemiology of measles in the CAR on the basis of surveillance and laboratory data. METHOD: A descriptive retrospective study was conducted, based on the databases of the measles surveillance programme and of the Institut Pasteur laboratory in Bangui during the period 2007-2015. RESULTS: During this study period, the surveillance programme notified 3767 cases. Of these, 2795 (75%) were sent for laboratory confirmation, and 24.6% (687/2795) were confirmed serologically. Of the 1797 cases of measles declared during this period by the surveillance programme, 1110 (61.8%) were confirmed clinically or by epidemiological linkage. The majority of confirmed cases (83.7%; 575/687) occurred in children under 10 years, over half of whom (44.2%; 304/687) were aged 1-4 years. Epidemics occurred regularly between 2011 and 2015, with > 10% of laboratory-confirmed cases. The rate of laboratory investigation was < 80% between 2011 and 2013 but nearly 100% in the other years. CONCLUSION: Measles remains a common, endemic illness in the CAR. Improved detection will require better measles surveillance, increased vaccination coverage, revision of the investigation forms to include the WHO case definition and training of the health personnel involved in case-finding in the field.

Burkholderia cepacia meningitis in the Central African Republic.

Burkholderia cepacia causes frequent infections in immunocompromised and hospitalized patients, with a significant mortality rate. This bacterial species has also been associated with epidemic outbreaks due to contamination of antiseptic solutions and parenteral and nebulized medications. In 2016, in the town of Bongonon in the north of the Central African Republic (CAR), a three-year-old boy with febrile meningeal syndrome (fever, neck stiffness and altered general condition) was admitted for a medical consultation provided by the nongovernmental organization MSF-Spain. On 20 March 2016, a sample of the boy's cerebrospinal fluid was sent to the Bacteriology Laboratory of the Pasteur Institute of Bangui for analysis. Conventional bacteriology showed that the isolate was a Gram-negative bacillus, which was identified as B. cepacia by using API 20 NE, with 99.9%confidence. In addition, the strain presented an acquired resistance to ticarcillin-clavulanate, ceftazidime and imipenem but remained susceptible to cotrimoxazole. As B. cepacia had never previously been isolated from cerebrospinal fluid in Africa, we chose to identify the strain by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The molecular data showed that the isolate belonged to B. cepacia group. This is the first report of a case of meningitis caused by B. cepacia in CAR and developing countries.

Surveillance of Rifampicin Resistance With GeneXpert MTB/RIF in the National Reference Laboratory for Tuberculosis at the Institut Pasteur in Bangui, 2015-2017.

BACKGROUND: The Central African Republic (CAR) has one of the heaviest burdens of tuberculosis (TB) in the world, with an incidence of 423 cases per 100 000 population. Surveillance of resistance to rifampicin with GeneXpert MTB/RIF was instituted in the National TB Reference Laboratory in 2015. The aim of this study was to evaluate, after 3 years, resistance to rifampicin, the most effective firstline drug against TB. METHODS: The surveillance database on cases of rifampicin resistance was retrospectively analyzed. The populations targeted by the National TB Programme were failure, relapse, default, and contacts of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB). Statistical analyses were performed with Stata software, version 14, using chi-square tests and odds ratios. RESULTS: Six hundred seventeen cases were registered; 63.7% were male, 36.3% were female, and the mean age was 35.5 years (range from 2 to 81). GeneXpert MTB/RIF tests were positive in 79.1% (488/617), and resistance to rifampicin was positive in 42.2% (206/488), with 49.1% (56/114) in 2015, 34.7% (57/164) in 2016, and 44.3% (93/210) in 2017. Failure cases had the highest rate of resistance (70.4%), with a significant difference (P < .0001; odds ratio, 9.5; 95% confidence interval, 4.4-20.5). Resistance was observed in 40% of contacts of MDR-TB, 28.2% of the relapses and 20% of the defaults without significant difference. CONCLUSIONS: Resistance to rifampicin is still high in the CAR and is most strongly associated with treatment failure. The Ministry of Health must to deploy GeneXpert MTB/RIF tests in the provinces to evaluate resistance to TB drugs in the country.

Serotype Distribution and Antimicrobial Resistance of Shigella Species in Bangui, Central African Republic, from 2002 to 2013.

Shigella is a major cause of severe diarrhea in children less than the age of 5 years in sub-Saharan Africa. The aim of this study was to describe the (sub-)serotype distribution and antimicrobial susceptibility of Shigella serogroups from Centrafrican patients with diarrhea between 2002 and 2013. We collected 443 Shigella isolates in total. The most common serogroups were Shigella flexneri (N = 243, 54.9%), followed by Shigella sonnei (N = 90, 20.3%) and Shigella dysenteriae (N = 72, 16.3%). The high diversity of (sub-)serotypes of S. flexneri and S. dysenteriae may impede the development of an efficient vaccine. Rates of resistance were high for ampicillin, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, and cotrimoxazole but low for many other antimicrobials, confirming recommendations for the use of third-generation cephalosporins (only one organism resistant) and fluoroquinolones (no resistance). However, the detection of one extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Shigella organism highlights the need for continued monitoring of antimicrobial drug susceptibility.

Free-living amoebae isolated in the Central African Republic: epidemiological and molecular aspects.

Among the many species of free-living amoebae infecting humans, only Naegleria fowleri, a few species of Acanthamoeba, Balamuthia mandrillaris recently Sappinia diploïdea and Paravahlkampfia Francina are responsible for human diseases especially deadly encephalitis outside of Acanthamoeba keratitis related. In the Central African Republic (CAR), no studies have previously been conducted about free amoebae and no suspicious cases of encephalitis or amoebic keratitis was reported even though the ecosystem supported the proliferation of these microorganisms. The objective of this study was to identify free-living amoebae present in CAR and to define the molecular characteristic. Bathing sites and cerebrospinal fluid from patients died of bacterial meningitis untagged were explored by culture and PCR and the amplicons were sequenced which allowed to characterize the species found. Only species of the genus Tetramitus, namely T. Entericus, T. waccamawensis and T.sp similar to those already described in the world and not pathogenic for humans were found in bathing sites, the cerebrospinal fluid meanwhile remained negative. Although no pathogen species such as Naegleria fowleri or species of Acanthamoeba have been isolated, this study worth pursuing because this investigation was very limited in space because of the insecurity in the country.

Epidemiological Surveillance of Poliomyelitis During the Military and Political Conflict in the Central African Republic, 2013 and 2014.

BACKGROUND: Since December 2012, the Central African Republic (CAR) has been undergoing a severe military and political conflict. This situation has resulted in general insecurity and total disorganization of surveillance activities, including those for acute flaccid paralysis (AFP). In this study, we used laboratory data to evaluate surveillance of AFP in 2013 and 2014, the most critical period of the conflict. METHODS: The laboratory data on AFP were analyzed retrospectively for the age, sex, vaccination status (oral poliovirus vaccines), and geographical origin of the samples. The χ2 test was used, with P < .05 as the threshold for significance. RESULTS: Decreased activity of AFP surveillance of 57% was registered in 2013 and 36% in 2014 compared with previous years. Only 37.3% and 49.7% of children with AFP were vaccinated in 2013 and 2014, respectively, but no wild poliovirus or vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV) was isolated. Laboratory performance concerning the timeliness of cell culture and intratypic differentiation/VDPV results was only 65.5% and 66.7% of the target in 2013 but reached 95.5% and 100% in 2014. CONCLUSIONS: All personnel involved in the monitoring of AFP must be mobilized to improve vaccination coverage and surveillance activities in the CAR.

Factors associated with stunting in healthy children aged 5 years and less living in Bangui (RCA).

Stunting remains a major public health concern worldwide. Although its global prevalence is slowly decreasing, the actual number of affected children is still rising in Sub-Saharan Africa. In the Central African Republic (CAR), about one third of all children below the age of five are stunted. Stunting is correlated with many long-term consequences, including poor cognitive development and a higher rate of morbidity and mortality, making stunting a major contributor to poverty. In CAR, little is known about the factors that contribute to stunting. This study aimed at analysing, in a cross-sectional study, the main factors associated with stunting in a group of 414 children recruited between December 2011 and November 2013, aged five years or less and living in Bangui. For all children, demographic, socio-economic and anthropometric data were recorded and asymptomatic enteropathogen carriage was assessed in stool samples using classical microbiological assays. The study group had a mean age of 14.2±10 months. Fifty-eight percent (292/414) were boys, and 36 percent (148/414) exhibited stunted growth. Of the stunted children, 51% (75/148) showed a moderate delay in linear growth for their age group [height-for-age z-score (HAZ) between -2 and -3 SD] while 49% (73/148) presented a severe delay (HAZ < -3). Factors significantly associated with stunting included gender (aOR: 1.67; 95% CI: 1.07; 2.62 for boys compared to girls) and age (aOR of 3.98 (95% CI: 2.45; 6.46) for toddlers and aOR 4.42 (95% CI: 2.36; 8.28) for children compared to infants). Most importantly, we identified being overweight [weight-for-height z-score (WHZ) > 2 SD; aOR: 3.21; 95% CI: 1.50; 6.90 of overweight compared to normal weight] as also being significantly associated with stunting. This is the first study showing that even in the poorest countries of the world there is an association of stunting with being overweight.

Etiology and Epidemiology of Diarrhea in Hospitalized Children from Low Income Country: A Matched Case-Control Study in Central African Republic.

BACKGROUND: In Sub-Saharan Africa, infectious diarrhea is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. A case-control study was conducted to identify the etiology of diarrhea and to describe its main epidemiologic risk factors among hospitalized children under five years old in Bangui, Central African Republic. METHODS: All consecutive children under five years old hospitalized for diarrhea in the Pediatric Complex of Bangui for whom a parent's written consent was provided were included. Controls matched by age, sex and neighborhood of residence of each case were included. For both cases and controls, demographic, socio-economic and anthropometric data were recorded. Stool samples were collected to identify enteropathogens at enrollment. Clinical examination data and blood samples were collected only for cases. RESULTS: A total of 333 cases and 333 controls was recruited between December 2011 and November 2013. The mean age of cases was 12.9 months, and 56% were male. The mean delay between the onset of first symptoms and hospital admission was 3.7 days. Blood was detected in 5% of stool samples from cases. Cases were significantly more severely or moderately malnourished than controls. One of the sought-for pathogens was identified in 78% and 40% of cases and controls, respectively. Most attributable cases of hospitalized diarrhea were due to rotavirus, with an attributable fraction of 39%. Four other pathogens were associated with hospitalized diarrhea: Shigella/EIEC, Cryptosporidium parvum/hominis, astrovirus and norovirus with attributable fraction of 9%, 10%, 7% and 7% respectively. Giardia intestinalis was found in more controls than cases, with a protective fraction of 6%. CONCLUSIONS: Rotavirus, norovirus, astrovirus, Shigella/EIEC, Cryptosporidium parvum/hominis were found to be positively associated with severe diarrhea: while Giardia intestinalis was found negatively associated. Most attributable episodes of severe diarrhea were associated with rotavirus, highlighting the urgent need to introduce the rotavirus vaccine within the CAR's Expanded Program on Immunization. The development of new medicines, vaccines and rapid diagnostic tests that can be conducted at the bedside should be high priority for low-resource countries.