Research into New Molecular Mechanisms in Thrombotic Diseases Paves the Way for Innovative Therapeutic Approaches.

Thrombosis is a multifaceted process involving various molecular components, including the coagulation cascade, platelet activation, platelet-endothelial interaction, anticoagulant signaling pathways, inflammatory mediators, genetic factors and the involvement of various cells such as endothelial cells, platelets and leukocytes. A comprehensive understanding of the molecular signaling pathways and cell interactions that play a role in thrombosis is essential for the development of precise therapeutic strategies for the treatment and prevention of thrombotic diseases. Ongoing research in this field is constantly uncovering new molecular players and pathways that offer opportunities for more precise interventions in the clinical setting. These molecular insights into thrombosis form the basis for the development of targeted therapeutic approaches for the treatment and prevention of thrombotic disease. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the pathogenesis of thrombosis and to explore new therapeutic options.

Platelets, Protean Cells with All-Around Functions and Multifaceted Pharmacological Applications.

Platelets, traditionally known for their roles in hemostasis and coagulation, are the most prevalent blood component after erythrocytes (150,000-400,000 platelets/µL in healthy humans). However, only 10,000 platelets/µL are needed for vessel wall repair and wound healing. Increased knowledge of the platelet's role in hemostasis has led to many advances in understanding that they are crucial mediators in many other physiological processes, such as innate and adaptive immunity. Due to their multiple functions, platelet dysfunction is involved not only in thrombosis, mediating myocardial infarction, stroke, and venous thromboembolism, but also in several other disorders, such as tumors, autoimmune diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases. On the other hand, thanks to their multiple functions, nowadays platelets are therapeutic targets in different pathologies, in addition to atherothrombotic diseases; they can be used as an innovative drug delivery system, and their derivatives, such as platelet lysates and platelet extracellular vesicles (pEVs), can be useful in regenerative medicine and many other fields. The protean role of platelets, from the name of Proteus, a Greek mythological divinity who could take on different shapes or aspects, is precisely the focus of this review.

Decreased Gas6 and sAxl Plasma Levels Are Associated with Hair Loss in COVID-19 Survivors.

Post-acute conditions after coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are quite common, although the underlying pathogenetic mechanisms leading to these conditions are not yet completely understood. In this prospective observational study, we aimed to test the hypothesis that Growth Arrest-Specific 6 (Gas6) and its soluble receptors, Axl (sAxl) and MerTK (sMer), might be implicated. A total of 263 subjects underwent a structured clinical evaluation one year after their hospital discharge for COVID-19, and they consented to donate a blood sample to measure their circulating Gas6, sAxl, and sMer levels. A total of 98 (37.3%) post-COVID-19 subjects complained of at least one residual physical symptom one year after their hospital discharge. Univariate analysis revealed that sAxl was marginally associated with residual symptoms, but at the level of logistic regression analysis, only the diffusing capacity of the lungs for carbon monoxide (DLCO) (OR 0.98, CI 95%: 0.96-0.99; p = 0.007) and the female sex (OR 2.49, CI 95%: 1.45-4.28; p = 0.001) were independently associated with long-lasting symptoms. A total of 69 (26.2%) subjects had hair loss. At the level of univariate analysis, Gas6, sAxl, DLCO, and the female gender were associated with its development. In a logistic regression analysis model, Gas6 (OR 0.96, CI 95%: 0.92-0.99; p = 0.015) and sAxl (OR 0.98, CI 95%; 0.97-1.0; p = 0.014), along with the female sex (OR 6.58, CI 95%: 3.39-12.78; p = 0.0001), were independent predictors of hair loss. Decreased levels of Gas6 and sAxl were associated with a history of hair loss following COVID-19. This was resolved spontaneously in most patients, although 23.7% complained of persistent hair loss one year after hospital discharge.

Consumption of complement in a 26-year-old woman with severe thrombotic thrombocytopenia after ChAdOx1 nCov-19 vaccination.

Extremely rare reactions characterized by thrombosis and thrombocytopenia have been described in subjects that received ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 vaccination 5-16 days earlier. Although patients with vaccine-induced thrombotic thrombocytopenia (VITT) have high levels of antibodies to platelet factor 4 (PF4)-polyanion complexes, the exact mechanism of the development of thrombosis is still unknown. Here we reported serum studies as well as proteomics and genomics analyses demonstrating a massive complement activation potentially linked to the presence of anti-PF4 antibodies in a patient with severe VITT. At admission, complement activity of the classical and lectin pathways were absent (0% for both) with normal levels of the alternative pathway (73%) in association with elevated levels of the complement activation marker sC5b-9 (630 ng/mL [n.v. 139-462 ng/mL]) and anti-PF4 IgG (1.918 OD [n.v. 0.136-0.300 OD]). The immunoblotting analysis of C2 showed the complete disappearance of its normal band at 110 kDa. Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment allowed to recover complement activity of the classical pathway (91%) and lectin pathway (115%), to reduce levels of sC5b-9 (135 ng/mL) and anti-PF4 IgG (0.681 OD) and to normalize the C2 pattern at immunoblotting. Proteomics and genomics analyses in addition to serum studies showed that the absence of complement activity during VITT was not linked to alterations of the C2 gene but rather to a strong complement activation leading to C2 consumption. Our data in a single patient suggest monitoring complement parameters in other VITT patients considering also the possibility to target complement activation with specific drugs.

Serum amyloid A in healthy subjects: assessment of reference value using ELISA method.

Serum amyloid A (SAA) is a family of acute-phase reactants. The rise of SAA concentration in blood circulation during the acute-phase response is a clinical marker of active inflammation. Despite its practical and analytical advantages, SAA measurement by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) has been used mainly as a research tool rather than for the routine laboratory testing. This may be partly explained by the lack of robust reference data in the literature for the different commercially available immunoassays. Using the recommended procedures for the production of reference intervals published by the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (IFCC), we developed the SAA reference interval for a well-defined Italian healthy population and investigated the correlation among SAA and C-reactive protein (CRP), the commonly used acute-phase marker. After data normalization, the reference cutoff was calculated as 225 ng/ml. A good correlation between SAA and CRP was found (P < .05). No statistically significant differences was found between males and females when the means of SAA values were compared, suggesting that not gender-partitioned reference range is recommended for this analyte. This study allowed to define a widely accepted reference cutoff for the SAA detected by ELISA, responding to an unmet need of laboratory medicine.

Hereditary Deficiency of the Second Component of Complement: Early Diagnosis and 21-Year Follow-Up of a Family.

Complement deficiencies are rare and often underdiagnosed primary immunodeficiencies that may be associated with invasive bacterial diseases. Serious infections with encapsulated organisms (mainly Streptococcus pneumoniae, but also Neisseria meningitides and Haemophilus influenzae type B) are frequent in patients with a deficiency of the second component of complement (C2), but no data are available on long-term follow-up. This study aimed to evaluate the long-term clinical outcome and the importance of an early diagnosis and subsequent infection prophylaxis in C2 deficiency. Here, we report the 21-year follow-up of a whole family which was tested for complement parameters, genetic analysis and biochemical measurements, due to recurrent pneumococcal meningitis in the elder brother. The two sons were diagnosed with homozygous type 1 C2 deficiency, while their parents were heterozygous with normal complement parameters. For the two brothers, a recommended vaccination program and antibiotic prophylaxis were prescribed. During the long-term follow-up, no severe/invasive infections were observed in either patient. At the age of 16, the younger brother developed progressive hypogammaglobulinemia of all three classes, IgA, IgM and IgG. A next generation sequencing panel excluded the presence of gene defects related to primary antibody deficiencies. Our data show that early diagnosis, use of vaccinations and antibiotic prophylaxis may allow a normal life in hereditary C2 deficiency, which can be characterized using functional and genetic methods. Moreover, a periodical check of immunoglobulin serum levels could be useful to detect a possible hypogammaglobulinemia.

Novel GLI2 mutations identified in patients with Combined Pituitary Hormone Deficiency (CPHD): Evidence for a pathogenic effect by functional characterization.

CONTEXT: The Gli-family of zinc-finger transcription factors regulates the Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signalling pathway that plays a key role in early pituitary and ventral forebrain development. Heterozygous GLI2 loss of function mutations in humans have been reported in holoprosencephaly (HPE), HPE-like phenotypes associated with pituitary anomalies and combined pituitary hormone deficiency with or without other extra-pituitary findings. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was the search for GLI2 mutations in a cohort of Italian CPHD patients and the assessment of a pathogenic role for the identified variants through in vitro studies. PATIENTS: One hundred forty-five unrelated CPHD patients diagnosed with or without extra-pituitary manifestations were recruited from different Italian centres. METHODS: The GLI2 mutation screening was carried out through direct sequencing of all the 13 exons and intron-exon boundaries. Luciferase reporter assays were performed to evaluate the role of the detected missense variants. RESULTS: Five different novel heterozygous non-synonymous GLI2 variants were identified in five patients. The mutations were three missense (p.Pro386Leu, p.Tyr575His, p.Ala593Val), one frameshift (p.Val1111Glyfs*19) and one nonsense (p.Arg1226X). The latter two mutants are likely pathogenic since they lead to a truncated protein. The in vitro functional study of the plasmids bearing two of the three missense variants (namely p.Tyr575His and p.Ala593Val) revealed a significant reduction in transcriptional activity. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, the analysis of GLI2 in individuals with CPHD led to the identification of five variations with a likely negative impact on the GLI2 protein, confirming that GLI2 is an important causative gene in CPHD. The functional in vitro study analysis performed on the missense variations were useful to strengthen the hypothesis of pathogenicity.

Improving clinical diagnosis in SHOX deficiency: the importance of growth velocity.

BackgroundThe aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of haploinsufficiency of short stature homeobox containing gene (SHOX) deficiency (SHOXD) in a population of short-statured children, and to analyze their phenotype and the performance of clinical scores.MethodsScreening for SHOXD was performed in 281 children with short stature by direct sequencing and multiplex ligation probe-dependent amplification. Subjects with SHOXD were compared with 117 matched short patients without SHOXD. We calculated the cutoff of growth velocity associated with the highest sensitivity and specificity as a screening test for SHOXD by receiver operating characteristic curves.ResultsThe prevalence of SHOXD was 6.8%. Subjects with SHOXD showed a lower growth velocity (P<0.05) and a higher prevalence of dysmorphic signs. The best cutoff for growth velocity was -1.5 standard deviation score (SDS) both in the whole population and in subjects with a Rappold score <7 and <4 points. Growth velocity was ≤-1.5 SDS or Rappold score was >7/>4 points in 17/17 of 19 children with SHOXD and in 49/65 of 117 subjects without SHOX mutations.ConclusionsGrowth rate ≤-1.5 SDS, even with negative Rappold score, may be useful to detect precociously children with SHOXD. Selecting children deserving the genetic test by using growth velocity or the Rappold score significantly increases the sensitivity in detecting mutations and decreases the specificity.

Genetic variations at the human growth hormone receptor (GHR) gene locus are associated with idiopathic short stature.

GH plays an essential role in the growing child by binding to the growth hormone receptor (GHR) on target cells and regulating multiple growth promoting and metabolic effects. Mutations in the GHR gene coding regions result in GH insensitivity (dwarfism) due to a dysfunctional receptor protein. However, children with idiopathic short stature (ISS) show growth impairment without GH or GHR defects. We hypothesized that decreased expression of the GHR gene may be involved. To test this, we investigated whether common genetic variants (microsatellites, SNPs) in regulatory regions of the GHR gene region were associated with the ISS phenotype. Genotyping of a GT-repeat microsatellite in the GHR 5'UTR in a Montreal ISS cohort (n = 37 ISS, n = 105 controls) revealed that the incidence of the long/short (L/S) genotype was 3.3× higher in ISS children than controls (P = 0.04, OR = 3.85). In an Italian replication cohort (n = 143 ISS, n = 282 controls), the medium/short (M/S) genotype was 1.9× more frequent in the male ISS than controls (P = 0.017, OR = 2.26). In both ISS cohorts, logistic regression analysis of 27 SNPs showed an association of ISS with rs4292454, while haplotype analysis revealed specific risk haplotypes in the 3' haploblocks. In contrast, there were no differences in GT genotype frequencies in a cohort of short stature (SS) adults versus controls (CARTaGENE: n = 168 SS, n = 207 controls) and the risk haplotype in the SS cohort was located in the most 5' haploblock. These data suggest that the variants identified are potentially genetic markers specifically associated with the ISS phenotype.

Variations in the high-mobility group-A2 gene (HMGA2) are associated with idiopathic short stature.

BACKGROUND: Several association studies confirmed high-mobility group-A2 gene (HMGA2) polymorphisms as the most relevant variants contributing to height variability. Animal models and deletions in humans suggest that alterations of HMGA2 might be relevant in causing short stature. Together, these observations led us to investigate the involvement of HMGA2 in idiopathic short stature (ISS) through an association study and a mutation screening. METHODS: We conducted an association study (155 ISS patients and 318 normal stature controls) with three HMGA2 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (SNPs rs1042725, rs7968682, and rs7968902) using a TaqMan-based assay. The patients were then analyzed by direct sequencing and multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification (MLPA) to detect point mutations and genomic micro-rearrangements. RESULTS: Considering a recessive model, an OR value >1 was observed for genotypes rs7968682 TT (Odds ratio (OR) = 1.72, confidence interval (CI): 1.14-2.58) and rs1042725 TT (OR = 1.51, CI: 1.00-2.28) in accordance to the effect exhibited by the single alleles in the general population. None of the patients carried possibly causative HMGA2 mutations. CONCLUSION: Besides the already known role in determining variability in human height, HMGA2 polymorphisms also contribute to susceptibility to ISS. Moreover, we here report the first mutation screening performed in ISS concluding that HMGA2 has not a significant impact on the monogenic form of ISS.

Frequency of genetic defects in combined pituitary hormone deficiency: a systematic review and analysis of a multicentre Italian cohort.

OBJECTIVE: Combined pituitary hormonal deficiency (CPHD) can result from mutations within genes that encode transcription factors. This study evaluated the frequency of mutations in these genes in a cohort of 144 unrelated Italian patients with CPHD and estimated the overall prevalence of mutations across different populations using a systematic literature review. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A multicentre study of adult and paediatric patients with CPHD was performed. The PROP1, POU1F1, HESX1, LHX3 and LHX4 genes were analysed for the presence of mutations using direct sequencing. We systematically searched PubMed with no date restrictions for studies that reported genetic screening of CPHD cohorts. We only considered genetic screenings with at least 10 individuals. Data extraction was conducted in accordance with the guidelines set by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). RESULTS: Global mutation frequency in Italian patients with CPHD was 2·9% (4/136) in sporadic cases and 12·5% (1/8) in familial cases. The worldwide mutation frequency for the five genes calculated from 21 studies was 12·4%, which ranged from 11·2% in sporadic to 63% in familial cases. PROP1 was the most frequently mutated gene in sporadic (6·7%) and familial cases (48·5%). CONCLUSION: The frequency of defects in genes encoding pituitary transcription factors is quite low in Italian patients with CPHD and other western European countries, especially in sporadic patients. The decision of which genes should be tested and in which order should be guided by hormonal and imaging phenotype, the presence of extrapituitary abnormalities and the frequency of mutation for each gene in the patient-referring population.

Unexpectedly high prevalence of rare genetic disorders in kidney transplant recipients with an unknown causal nephropathy.

BACKGROUND: Patients with a rare genetic disease may receive renal transplantation (KTx) without a correct diagnosis of causal nephropathy and therefore develop unexpected and even severe complications. The aim of the study was to describe the cases of rare genetic disorders diagnosed after KTx, in order to draw clinical lessons for the transplant physician. METHODS: We retrospectively assessed all patients who had received a diagnosis of a rare genetic disorder after KTx. RESULTS: In our center, more than 30% (278/911) of kidney transplant (KTx) recipients were diagnosed with a causal nephropathy: Prevalence of rare genetic disorders in this group was 4.32% (12/278), including 2,8-dihydroxyadeninuria (2,8-DHA) disease (n = 2), HNF-1B-associated nephropathy (n = 2), UMOD-related nephropathy (n = 5), Fabry disease (n = 1), INF2 focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (n = 1), and Senior-Løken syndrome (n = 1). 2,8-DHA nephropathy relapsed in both patients causing an acute renal failure and jeopardizing the graft. CONCLUSIONS: Kidney transplant recipients without a diagnosis of causal nephropathy appear to be a selected population in which rare genetic diseases might be more common than expected. As even a belated diagnosis after KTx can have a significant impact on graft and patient survival and on other family members, this possibility should be evaluated in KTx recipients without a known causal nephropathy.

Chronic renal failure of unknown origin is caused by HNF1B mutations in 9% of adult patients: a single centre cohort analysis.

BACKGROUND: HNF1B gene mutations might be an underdiagnosed cause of nephropathy in adult patients mainly because of their pleomorphic clinical presentations. As most studies are based on paediatric populations, it is difficult to assess the likelihood of finding HNF1B mutations in adult patients and consequently define clinical settings in which genetic analysis is indicated. The aim of this study was the search for mutations in the HNF1B gene in a cohort of unrelated adult patients with nephropathy of unknown aetiology. METHODS: Patients were tested for the HNF1B gene if they had chronic kidney disease of unknown origin and renal structure abnormalities (RSA) or a positive family history of nephropathy. The HNF1B coding sequence and intron-exon boundaries were analysed by direct sequencing. The search for gene deletions was performed by Multiple Ligation Probe Analysis (MLPA). RESULTS: Heterozygous mutations were identified in 6 out of 67 screened patients (9.0%) and included two whole gene deletions, one nonsense (p.Gln136Stop), two missense (p.Gly76Cys and p.Ala314Thr) mutations and a frameshift microdeletion (c.384_390 delCATGCAG), the latter two (c.384_390 del and p.Ala314Thr) not ever being reported to date. Mean age of the mutated patients at screening was 48.5 years with a M/F ratio of 2/4. The clinical manifestations of affected patients were extremely pleomorphic, including several urological and extra-renal manifestations. CONCLUSIONS: Mutations of HNF1B could explain chronic kidney disease in up to 9% of adult patients with a nephropathy of unknown aetiology and RSA: therefore an HNF1B mutation analysis should be considered in this group of patients.

Role of CES1 and ABCB1 Genetic Polymorphisms on Functional Response to Dabigatran in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation.

Background: Dabigatran etexilate is a pro-drug hydrolyzed into dabigatran by carboxylesterases (CES) and is a substrate of the P-Glycoprotein encoded by the adenosine-triphosphate-binding cassette sub-family B member (ABCB)1 genes. We evaluated the functional response to dabigatran according to different CES1 and ABCB1 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in patients with atrial fibrillation (AF). Methods: A total of 100 consecutive patients with AF taking dabigatran were enrolled by two Italian centers. A venous blood sample was drawn for genetic determinations, as well as a measurement of the diluted thrombin time (dTT) and drug plasma concentrations, at the trough and peak. The main objective was the relationship between the dTT values and CES1 rs2244613, CES1 rs8192935 and ABCB1 rs4148738 SNP while on two different dabigatran doses (110 and 150 mg BID). Results: A total of 43 patients were on a 110 mg dabigatran dose and 57 on 150 mg. The DTT values at the trough and at peak were not different among patients with different CES1 rs2244613 and CES1 rs8192935 genotypes, regardless of the dabigatran dose. In patients on 150 mg dabigatran, the dTT values at the trough were 77 (44-111) ng/mL in patients with the ABCB1 rs4148738 heterozygous CT genotype vs. 127 (85-147) ng/mL in the wild-type CC genotype vs. 110 (47-159) ng/mL in the mutant trait TT genotype (p = 0.048). In patients with the ABCB1 rs4148738 CT genotype, OR for having dTT values at a trough below the median was 3.21, 95% CI 1.04-9.88 (p = 0.042). Conclusions: ABCB1 rs4148738 CT heterozygous is associated with the reduced anticoagulant activity of dabigatran at the trough in patients receiving the higher dose regimen.

Endocrine features of Prader-Willi syndrome: a narrative review focusing on genotype-phenotype correlation.

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is a complex genetic disorder caused by three different types of molecular genetic abnormalities. The most common defect is a deletion on the paternal 15q11-q13 chromosome, which is seen in about 60% of individuals. The next most common abnormality is maternal disomy 15, found in around 35% of cases, and a defect in the imprinting center that controls the activity of certain genes on chromosome 15, seen in 1-3% of cases. Individuals with PWS typically experience issues with the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, leading to excessive hunger (hyperphagia), severe obesity, various endocrine disorders, and intellectual disability. Differences in physical and behavioral characteristics between patients with PWS due to deletion versus those with maternal disomy are discussed in literature. Patients with maternal disomy tend to have more frequent neurodevelopmental problems, such as autistic traits and behavioral issues, and generally have higher IQ levels compared to those with deletion of the critical PWS region. This has led us to review the pertinent literature to investigate the possibility of establishing connections between the genetic abnormalities and the endocrine disorders experienced by PWS patients, in order to develop more targeted diagnostic and treatment protocols. In this review, we will review the current state of clinical studies focusing on endocrine disorders in individuals with PWS patients, with a specific focus on the various genetic causes. We will look at topics such as neonatal anthropometry, thyroid issues, adrenal problems, hypogonadism, bone metabolism abnormalities, metabolic syndrome resulting from severe obesity caused by hyperphagia, deficiencies in the GH/IGF-1 axis, and the corresponding responses to treatment.

The Changing Landscape of Neonatal Diabetes Mellitus in Italy Between 2003 and 2022.

CONTEXT: In the last decade the Sanger method of DNA sequencing has been replaced by next-generation sequencing (NGS). NGS is valuable in conditions characterized by high genetic heterogeneity such as neonatal diabetes mellitus (NDM). OBJECTIVE: To compare results of genetic analysis of patients with NDM and congenital severe insulin resistance (c.SIR) identified in Italy in 2003-2012 (Sanger) vs 2013-2022 (NGS). METHODS: We reviewed clinical and genetic records of 104 cases with diabetes onset before 6 months of age (NDM + c.SIR) of the Italian dataset. RESULTS: Fifty-five patients (50 NDM + 5 c.SIR) were identified during 2003-2012 and 49 (46 NDM + 3 c.SIR) in 2013-2022. Twenty-year incidence was 1:103 340 (NDM) and 1:1 240 082 (c.SIR) live births. Frequent NDM/c.SIR genetic defects (KCNJ11, INS, ABCC8, 6q24, INSR) were detected in 41 and 34 probands during 2003-2012 and 2013-2022, respectively. We identified a pathogenic variant in rare genes in a single proband (GATA4) (1/42 or 2.4%) during 2003-2012 and in 8 infants (RFX6, PDX1, GATA6, HNF1B, FOXP3, IL2RA, LRBA, BSCL2) during 2013-2022 (8/42 or 19%, P = .034 vs 2003-2012). Notably, among rare genes 5 were recessive. Swift and accurate genetic diagnosis led to appropriate treatment: patients with autoimmune NDM (FOXP3, IL2RA, LRBA) were subjected to bone marrow transplant; patients with pancreas agenesis/hypoplasia (RFX6, PDX1) were supplemented with pancreatic enzymes, and the individual with lipodystrophy caused by BSCL2 was started on metreleptin. CONCLUSION: NGS substantially improved diagnosis and precision therapy of monogenic forms of neonatal diabetes and c.SIR in Italy.

Case report: Better late than never, but sooner is better: switch from CSII to sulfonylureas in two patients with neonatal diabetes due to KCNJ11 variants.

Neonatal diabetes mellitus (NDM) is a rare genetic disease characterized by severe hyperglycemia requiring insulin therapy with onset mostly within the first 6 months and rarely between 6-12 months of age. The disease can be classified into transient (TNDM) or permanent neonatal diabetes mellitus (PNDM), or it can be a component of a syndrome. The most frequent genetic causes are abnormalities of the 6q24 chromosomal region and mutations of the ABCC8 or KCNJ11 genes coding for the pancreatic beta cell's potassium channel (KATP). After the acute phase, patients with ABCC8 or KCNJ11 mutations treated with insulin therapy can switch to hypoglycemic sulfonylureas (SU). These drugs close the KATP channel binding the SUR1 subunit of the potassium channel and restoring insulin secretion after a meal. The timing of this switch can be different and could affect long-term complications. We describe the different management and clinical outcome over the time of two male patients with NDM due to KCNJ11 pathogenetic variants. In both cases, continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion pumps (CSII) were used to switch therapy from insulin to SU, but at different times after the onset. The two patients kept adequate metabolic control after the introduction of glibenclamide; during the treatment, insulin secretion was evaluated with c-peptide, fructosamine, and glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), which were within the normal range. In neonates or infants with diabetes mellitus, genetic testing is an indispensable diagnostic tool and KCNJ11 variants should be considered. A trial of oral glibenclamide must be considered, switching from insulin, the first line of NDM treatment. This therapy can improve neurological and neuropsychological outcomes, in particular in the case of earlier treatment initiation. A new modified protocol with glibenclamide administered several times daily according to continuous glucose monitoring profile indications, was used. Patients treated with glibenclamide maintain good metabolic control and prevent hypoglycemia, neurological damage, and apoptosis of beta cells during long-term administration.

Genes and Microbiota Interaction in Monogenic Autoimmune Disorders.

Monogenic autoimmune disorders represent an important tool to understand the mechanisms behind central and peripheral immune tolerance. Multiple factors, both genetic and environmental, are known to be involved in the alteration of the immune activation/immune tolerance homeostasis typical of these disorders, making it difficult to control the disease. The latest advances in genetic analysis have contributed to a better and more rapid diagnosis, although the management remains confined to the treatment of clinical manifestations, as there are limited studies on rare diseases. Recently, the correlation between microbiota composition and the onset of autoimmune disorders has been investigated, thus opening up new perspectives on the cure of monogenic autoimmune diseases. In this review, we will summarize the main genetic features of both organ-specific and systemic monogenic autoimmune diseases, reporting on the available literature data on microbiota alterations in these patients.

A new mutation in the CAVIN1/PTRF gene in two siblings with congenital generalized lipodystrophy type 4: case reports and review of the literature.

Lipodystrophy syndromes are characterized by a progressive metabolic impairment secondary to adipose tissue dysfunction and may have a genetic background. Congenital generalized lipodystrophy type 4 (CGL4) is an extremely rare subtype, caused by mutations in the polymerase I and transcript release factor (PTRF) gene. It encodes for a cytoplasmatic protein called caveolae-associated protein 1 (Cavin-1), which, together with caveolin 1, is responsible for the biogenesis of caveolae, being a master regulator of adipose tissue expandability. Cavin-1 is expressed in several tissues, including muscles, thus resulting, when dysfunctional, in a clinical phenotype characterized by the absence of adipose tissue and muscular dystrophy. We herein describe the clinical phenotypes of two siblings in their early childhood, with a phenotype characterized by a generalized reduction of subcutaneous fat, muscular hypertrophy, distinct facial features, myopathy, and atlantoaxial instability. One of the siblings developed paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia leading to cardiac arrest at 3 months of age. Height and BMI were normal. Blood tests showed elevated CK, a mild increase in liver enzymes and triglycerides levels, and undetectable leptin and adiponectin concentrations. Fasting glucose and HbA1c were normal, while Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) was mildly elevated. Both patients were hyperphagic and had cravings for foods rich in fats and sugars. Genetic testing revealed a novel pathogenic mutation of the CAVIN1/PTRF gene (NM_012232 exon1:c T21A:p.Y7X) at the homozygous state. The diagnosis of lipodystrophy can be challenging, often requiring a multidisciplinary approach, given the pleiotropic effect, involving several tissues. The coexistence of generalized lack of fat, myopathy with elevated CK levels, arrhythmias, gastrointestinal dysmotility, and skeletal abnormalities should prompt the suspicion for the diagnosis of CGL4, although phenotypic variability may occur.

Temporal correlation between the first melanoma and the first noncutaneous tumor in CKDN2A genotyped patients.

CDKN2A pathogenic variants are well known to be associated with cutaneous melanoma and noncutaneous tumors (NCTs). Herein, we investigated the temporal correlation between the first cutaneous melanoma and NCT both in CDKN2A mutation carriers (MUT) and in wild-type melanoma patients, a poorly explored issue to date. Two hundred forty-five cutaneous melanoma patients were genotyped for the CDKN2A gene and divided into 51 MUT and 189 wild-type; the remaining five variant carriers were excluded from the analyses. MUT developed a significantly higher number of cutaneous melanoma than wild-type, while 13.7% in both genotyped groups received a diagnosis of at least one malignant NCT, without statistically significant differences. The onset of the first cutaneous melanoma preceded that of the first malignant or benign NCT in both MUT and wild-type patients by an average of 4.5 and 3.02 years, respectively. Considering only malignant tumors, the diagnosis of melanoma preceded that of the first NCT on an average of 8 and 4.34 years, in MUT and wild-type patients respectively. We emphasize the relevance to adopt a global vision for the primary and secondary surveillance of patients affected by cutaneous melanoma, not only limited to high-risk for multiple primary skin cancers but also to NCT that may develop several years after the diagnosis of the first cutaneous melanoma.