The effect of artificial light at night on a nocturnal primate.

Anthropogenic disturbance is a major threat to biodiversity. An anthropogenic disturbance that is rarely addressed for nonhuman primates is the effect of artificial light at night (ALAN) which is defined by the spread of artificial lighting at night which eliminates natural darkness. Artificial light at night can result from streetlights, or indirectly from sky glow (artificial light that is scattered and reflected back to earth by the atmosphere). Research has demonstrated that artificial lighting causes changes in animal behavior, reproductive success, survivorship, as well as can alter the composition of the communities. The goal of this paper is to explore how the behavior of spectral tarsiers, Tarsius spectrumgurskyae, is modified in response to artificial light. We conducted this study at Tangkoko Nature Reserve on the easternmost tip of the northern arm of Sulawesi, Indonesia. The results of this study suggest that in response to artificial light tarsiers increase their time spent travelling and foraging, left their sleeping sites earlier and returned to them later thereby extending their daily activity time. The tarsiers also left their sleeping trees at lower heights, gave fewer vocalizations and fewer alarm calls each night in response to the additional artificial light. The tarsier's lengthened night might be leading to a change in interspecific competition for food as well as increase the ability of potential predators to locate the tarsiers. Additional research on the effect of ALAN on primates is clearly needed.

Small, odd and old: The mysterious Tarsius pumilus is the most basal Sulawesi tarsier.

In this study, we present the first genetic evidence of the phylogenetic position of Tarsius pumilus, the mountain tarsier of Sulawesi, Indonesia. This mysterious primate is the only Eastern tarsier species that occurs exclusively in cloud forests above 1800 m.a.s.l. It exhibits striking morphological peculiarities-most prominently its extremely reduced body size, which led to the common name of 'pygmy tarsier'. However, our results indicate that T. pumilus is not an aberrant form of a lowland tarsier, but in fact, the most basal of all Sulawesi tarsiers. Applying a Bayesian multi-locus coalescent approach, we dated the divergence between the T. pumilus lineage and the ancestor of all other extant Sulawesi tarsiers to 9.88 Mya. This is as deep as the split between the two other tarsier genera Carlito (Philippine tarsiers) and Cephalopachus (Western tarsiers), and predates further tarsier diversification on Sulawesi by around 7 Myr. The date coincides with the deepening of the marine environment between eastern and western Sulawesi, which likely led to allopatric speciation between T. pumilus or its predecessor in the west and the ancestor of all other Sulawesi tarsiers in the east. As the split preceded the emergence of permanent mountains in western Sulawesi, it is unlikely that the shift to montane habitat has driven the formation of the T. pumilus lineage.

Cryptic Communication in a Montane Nocturnal Haplorhine, Tarsius pumilus.

Crypsis, including visual and auditory concealment, usually manifests in primates as an antipredator strategy. Other factors may also influence cryptic communication style, including habitat structure and phylogenetic history. Compared to less cryptic lowland Sulawesian tarsiers, montane pygmy tarsiers (Tarsius pumilus) exhibit a communication style that lacks scent marks and lower-frequency vocalisations. This study examines why auditory crypsis occurs in montane tarsiers more so than in larger tarsier species and presents the only known spectrograms of T. pumilus in the field. T. pumilus regularly exhibited calls with a dominant frequency of 60-80 kHz (n = 4) in both social situations (duet calls) and stressed contexts. These results indicate that highland, smaller-bodied tarsiers habitually communicate at high frequencies in contexts where Sulawesian and Philippine tarsiers use lower frequencies. While predation threats and habitat acoustics may influence the use of high-frequency vocalisations, this study found that T. pumilus shows an expected relationship between vocal frequency and body mass. These traits may represent a retention of primitive haplorhine traits rather than derived adaptations to a montane environment.

Impact of Typhoon Haiyan on a Philippine Tarsier Population.

Over the last 2 decades the Philippine tarsier (Carlito syrichta aka Tarsius syrichta) has had its conservation status revised from Endangered to Data Deficient to Near Threatened. The last status change was based on a study of the species' population density, which suggested that a single natural catastrophe could potentially wipe out the Philippine tarsier. In 2013 typhoon Haiyan hit Bohol, one of the island strongholds for this species. In this study we compare the density of the Bohol tarsier population within the Philippine Tarsier and Wildlife Sanctuary before and after the typhoon. We demonstrate that the typhoon significantly affected the density of the Philippine tarsier in the sanctuary. Before the typhoon, tarsier density was approximately 157 individuals/km2 whereas after the typhoon the density was a mere 36 individuals/km2. Prior to the typhoon, more Philippine tarsiers were found in older secondary forest than in younger secondary forest, whereas after the typhoon all observed individuals were found in relatively younger secondary forest. Vegetation plots where we observed Philippine tarsiers prior to the typhoon contained a mean of 33 trees/m2, with a mean diameter at breast height (DBH) of 24 cm, and a mean height of 4 m. After the typhoon vegetation plots contained an average of 156 trees, had a mean DBH of 6 cm, and a mean height of 2 m. Based on the IUCN Red List criteria, the reduction and fluctuation in the density of this species suggests that the conservation status of the Philippine tarsier should be changed to Vulnerable. This study indicates natural disasters can have a significant effect on the extinction risk of primates, with implications for future effects of anthropogenic climate change.

Altitude and forest edges influence the density and distribution of pygmy tarsiers (Tarsius pumilus).

In this study, we examine how high-altitude ecology and anthropogenic edges relate to the density and distribution of pygmy tarsiers. Pygmy tarsiers (Tarsius pumilus) are extremely small-bodied primates (55 g) that are endemic to high-altitude forest and exhibit several differences from lowland Sulawesian tarsier species. From June to September 2010 and January to March 2012, we conducted a population census of pygmy tarsiers across multiple altitudes. Sampling took place within a 1.2 km(2) area encompassing altitudes of 2,000-2,300 m a.s.l. on Mt. Rore Katimbu in Lore Lindu National Park, central Sulawesi, Indonesia. We observed 22 individuals, with an estimated population density of 92 individuals per 100 ha. These results indicate that pygmy tarsiers live at a lower density than lowland Sulawesian tarsier species. Lower density was associated with decreased resources at higher altitudes, including decreased tree size, tree density, and insect biomass. Within the sample area, we found pygmy tarsiers in only 8 of 24 (33%) quadrats, suggesting a nonrandom distribution that probably overinflated this population density estimate. Pygmy tarsiers exhibited a clumped distribution near anthropogenic edges that were associated with increased insect abundance and biomass. Airborne insects were more abundant along forest edges than within the forest interior, and pygmy tarsiers were observed to forage along edges where there was a higher abundance of Lepidoptera and Orthoptera. Tarsiers may mitigate the decreased availability of insects at high altitudes by adjusting their ranging patterns to remain near forest edges.

Does toxic defence in Nycticebus spp. relate to ectoparasites? The lethal effects of slow loris venom on arthropods.

The venom produced by slow lorises (Nycticebus spp.) is toxic both intra- and inter-specifically. In this study we assessed the ecoparasite repellent properties of their venom. We tested venom from two Indonesian slow loris species: Nycticebus javanicus and Nycticebus coucang. Arthropods directly exposed to brachial gland secretions mixed with saliva from both species were immediately impaired or exhibited reduced activity (76%), and often died as a result (61%). We found no significant difference in the result of 60-min trials between N. coucang and N. javanicus [X(2)(1, n = 140) = 2.110, p = 0.3482]. We found evidence that the degree of lethality of the venom varies according to the arthropod taxa to which it is exposed. While most maggots (84%) were initially impaired from the venom after 10 min, maggots died after a 1 h trial 42% of the time. In contrast, at the end of 1 h trial, spiders died 78% of the time. For all arthropods, the average time to death from exposure was less than 25 min (M = 24.40, SD = 22.60). Ectoparasites including ticks, members of the arachnid order, are known to transmit pathogens to hosts and may be an intended target of the toxic secretions. Our results suggest that one function of slow loris venom is to repel parasites that affect their fitness, and that their topical anointing behaviour may be an adaptive response to ectoparasites.