Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emission from the dairy production system - review.

Climate change is altering ecological systems and poses a serious threat to human life. Climate change also seriously influences on livestock production by interfering with growth, reproduction, and production. Livestock, on the other hand, is blamed for being a significant contributor to climate change, emitting 8.1 gigatonnes of CO2-eq per year and accounting for two-thirds of global ammonia emissions. Methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2) are three major greenhouse gases (GHG) that are primarily produced by enteric fermentation, feed production, diet management, and total product output. Ruminants account for three-quarters of total CO2-equivalent (CO2-eq) emissions from the livestock sector. The global dairy sector alone emits 4.0% of global anthropogenic GHG emissions. Hence, dairy farming needs to engage in environmental impact assessment. Public concern for a sustainable and environmentally friendly farming system is growing, resulting in the significant importance of food-based life cycle assessment (LCA). Over the last decade, LCA has been used in agriculture to assess total GHG emissions associated with products such as milk and manure. It includes the production of farm inputs, farm emissions, milk processing, transportation, consumer use, and waste. LCA studies on milk production would assist us in identifying the specific production processes/areas that contribute to excessive greenhouse gas emissions when producing milk and recommending appropriate mitigation strategies to be implemented for a clean, green, and resilient environment.

Comprehensive assessment of holding urine as a behavioral risk factor for UTI in women and reasons for delayed voiding.

BACKGROUND: Women of reproductive age group have greater predilection to urinary tract infections (UTI). Various risk factors increase the prevalence in women. Emergence of multidrug resistant uropathogens make clinical management of UTI challenging. Here we assess holding of urine as risk factor of UTI in women and reasons for delayed voiding. We also investigate the relationship between frequency of UTIs and overall behavioural features, menstrual hygiene and attitude of women towards their own health issues. METHODS: A questionnaire based cross-sectional study was performed with 816 hostel residents with written consent. Self-reported data was statistically analysed using SPSS software. Urinalysis and urine culture were done for 50 women by random sampling to obtain the information on leading causative agents of UTI in the study population and their antimicrobial resistance profile. RESULTS: The prevalence of UTI among the participants without risk factors was found to be 27.5 (95% CI: 24.4-30.7). Attitude of women towards their own personal health issues and use of public toilets showed a correlation with prevalence of infection. Delay in urination on habitual basis was found to be associated with UTI. Uropathogens isolated by random sampling were resistant to multiple drugs that are generally used to treat UTI. CONCLUSIONS: Holding urine for long time had proven to be an important risk factor and amongst different reasons of holding urine, holding due to poor sanitary condition of public toilets was the most common. Higher frequency of self-reported UTIs is related to holding of urine, behavioural features and attitude of women.

Effects of flumethrin on the germinative cells of engorged females of Rhipicephalus annulatus.

Chemical acaricides are widely used for the effective control of ticks in India. The synthetic pyrethroids, are one of the most popular chemical acaricides with selective neurotoxic potential. Flumethrin is a type II synthetic pyrethroid used extensively in veterinary practice in India. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the cytotoxic effects of flumethrin on the engorged females of Rhipicephalus annulatus using entomological parameters, histology, electron microscopy and relative quantification of receptors of dopamine and GABAB mRNAs. Adult immersion test (AIT) using flumethrin (100 ppm), revealed twenty per cent mortality of ticks, hundred per cent inhibition of fecundity and complete blocking of hatching of the laid eggs. Microscopic analysis of the structure of the ovaries after 24 h of treatment with flumethrin (90 ppm) revealed changes, viz., reduction in size with the presence of amorphous material inside stage I oocytes, wrinkled boundary and chromatin fragmentation of nucleus of stage II oocytes, vacuoles around the germinal vesicle, thickening of the nuclear membrane and chromatin clumping of stage III oocytes and reduction in size and shape of mature stage IV and V oocytes. Also, a large number of vacuoles were observed throughout the pedicel cell region of stage II and III oocytes. Ultrastructurally, irregular nuclear membrane, swelling as well as crystolysis of mitochondria and detachment of external and internal layers of the basal lamina of oocytes were the major structural alterations confirming direct damaging effects of flumethrin on the germinative cells. The relative quantification of the expression of dopamine D1, dopamine D2 and GABAB receptors by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT PCR), revealed the upregulation of dopamine D1 receptor and downregulation of receptors of dopamine D2 and GABAB in the ovary of treated ticks.

Development and optimization of nanoemulsion based gel for enhanced transdermal delivery of nitrendipine using box-behnken statistical design.

Objective: The purpose of present research was to develop and statistically optimize nitrendipine nanoemulsion gel for transdermal delivery using box-behnken statistical design.Method: The nanoemulsion formulations bearing nitrendipine were prepared by application of ternary phase diagram and spontaneous emulsification method. Box-behnken design was employed for the optimization of nitrendipine loaded nanoemulsion. The independent variables were oil, surfactant and co-surfactant while globule size, drug content and zeta potential were dependent variables. The optimized nanoemulsion formulation was incorporated into gel and evaluated for in-vitro release, ex-vivo permeation studies, confocal laser scanning microscopy, skin irritation and histopathological studies.Results: The optimized formulation through box-behnken statistical design showed globule size of 20.43 ± 1.50 nm, drug content of 97.05 ± 1.77% and zeta potential of -15.45 ± 0.35 mV. The ex-vivo study confirmed the enhanced delivery of nitrendipine from nanoemulsion gel than compare to drug solution by virtue of better permeation and solubility. Nanoemulsion gel was proved significantly superior by confocal laser scanning microscopy for satisfactory permeation and distribution of gel, deep into the rat skin. The optimized gel was found with no allergic dermal effects and was proved safe by histopathological studies for transdermal application.Conclusions: Results reveals that developed nitrendipine nanoemulsion gel overcomes the limitation of low penetration and accentuate permeation through albino Wistar rat skin. It was concluded that nanoemulsion gel could be utilized as a potential carrier for transdermal delivery of nitrendipine.

Molecular, histological and ultrastructural characterization of cytotoxic effects of amitraz on the ovaries of engorged females of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus.

In the present study, the cytotoxic effects of amitraz, an octopamine receptor agonist on the reproductive system of engorged adult females of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus were assessed using histology, electron microscopy and octopamine beta (OCTß) receptor transcriptional expression analysis. Adult immersion test (AIT) was performed by immersing the fully engorged female ticks for 2 min in different concentrations of amitraz (200, 250, 300, 350 ppm). Amitraz at the dose of 300 ppm, caused an adult tick mortality of 16.66 ±â€¯6.80 per cent, inhibition of fecundity of 75.80 per cent and hatching of 50 per cent of ova laid by treated ticks. Histological changes in the ovaries of ticks collected after 24 h of treatment with amitraz (300 ppm), in comparison with controls (distilled water/methanol) were identified by microscopical examination of sections (4  µm) stained using haematoxylin and eosin. These changes included reduction in size and basophilia of stage I oocytes, presence of cytoplasmic vacuoles of various sizes around germinal vesicle of stage II oocytes, wavy basement membrane of stage III oocytes and reduction in size and number of mature stage IV and V oocytes. Electron microscopy was employed for understanding the structural changes in the ultrathin sections (60 nm) of ovaries. Ticks treated with amitraz showed major ultrastructural changes such as irregular nuclear membrane, crystolysis of mitochondria and detachment of external and internal layers of basal lamina of oocytes. The cDNA synthesized from the total RNA of whole ticks and ovaries of ticks treated with amitraz along with controls were used for relative quantification of Octopamine ß receptor (OCTß-R) expression based on the 2-ΔΔCT method by quantitative real time PCR (qRT PCR). Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was used as endogenous control. Down regulation of expression of OCTß-R mRNA in the ovaries of amitraz treated ticks was observed compared to controls. Thus, the inhibition of fecundity observed in the ticks treated with amitraz can be attributed to the major structural changes and decreased expression of OCT ß receptor mRNA induced by it in the ovary.

Effect of supplementation of recombinant Regucalcin in extender on cryopreservation of spermatozoa of water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis).

Elevated intracellular calcium concentration and oxidative damage are two major factors contributing to the poor fertility of cryopreserved spermatozoa. Regucalcin (RGN), also known as Senescence marker protein-30 (SMP-30), is a calcium-binding protein with multiple roles that include calcium homeostasis, anti-oxidative, anti-apoptosis, and anti-proliferation. In Drosophila, RGN is reportedly a putative cold-tolerance gene and a cytoprotective role for RGN against intracellular calcium elevation and oxidative stress was reported in P19 cell lines. Given that RGN has anticapacitatory effect and abundant in the male reproductive tract, we hypothesized that it may play a cryoprotective role for spermatozoa. We investigated this by including RGN, at three different concentrations (20, 40, and 60 µg/ml), as a supplement for Tris-egg yolk-based semen extender. Post-thaw metrics of progressive motility, acrosome integrity, and zona pellucida binding of spermatozoa were evaluated for three ejaculates of three clinically normal, breeding Murrah buffaloes. A concentration of 40 µg/ml of recombinant RGN supplemented during sperm freezing resulted in significant increases in the post-thaw progressive motility of spermatozoa (50.6 ± 3.5% vs 40.6 ± 2.6%; p < 0.01), acrosome integrity (53.3 ± 7.4 vs 75.6 ± 6.8; p < 0.05), and zona pellucida binding (31.6 ± 14.0 vs 191.9 ± 12.3 bound spermatozoa; p < 0.01) compared to control conditions without RGN. Thus, ∼1 µM recombinant RGN, which retains the ability to bind calcium, has a cryoprotective effect for buffalo spermatozoa in extender.

Expression and functional role of Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) in cyclical corpus luteum in buffalo (Bubalus bubalis).

The role of growth factors in the modulation of ovarian function is an interesting area of research in reproductive biology. Recently, we have shown the expression and role of IGF, EGF, VEGF and FGF in the follicle and CL. Here, we report the presence of Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) and their functional receptors in the corpus luteum (CL) of buffalo. The bubaline CL was classified into four stages according to the morphology and progesterone (P4) concentration. The qPCR, immunoblot and immunohistochemistry studies revealed that BMP2 and BMP Receptors (BMPR1A, BMPR1B and BMPR2) were significantly upregulated during the mid stage whereas BMP4 and BMP7 were upregulated during the early stage of CL (P<0.05). Studies on primary luteal cell culture (LCC) using mid CL showed a significant time and concentration dependent effect of BMP4 and BMP7 (P<0.05). At 100ngml-1, the BMPs maximally stimulated the transcripts of StAR, CYP11A1 and 3ßHSD that paralleled with P4 accretion in the media (P<0.05). Further, the BMP4 as well as BMP7 upregulated the transcripts of PCNA and downregulated CASPASE3 in the LCC at the same concentration (P<0.05). Though the combined effect of BMP4 and 7 was significantly higher (P<0.05) than that of individual one, it was not additive. In conclusion, the expression of BMPs and their receptors were dependent on the stages of CL in the buffalo. Treatment of LCC with BMPs in vitro confirmed the presence of functional receptors that stimulated the P4 production and luteal cell survival. Moreover, the results support the concept that the upregulation of P4 and its biosynthetic pathway enzymes such as CYP11A1, StAR and 3ßHSD in the CL is likely due to the autocrine and /or paracrine effects of BMP4 and BMP7 under physiological milieu.

Formulation, in vitro, and in vivo evaluation of matrix-type transdermal patches containing olanzapine.

Transdermal patches of olanzapine were aimed to be prepared to overcome the side effects by oral application. The strategy was formulation of eudragit-based polymeric films to prepare transdermal patches by using nonionic (span-20), anionic (sodium lauryl sulfate), cationic surfactant (benzalkonium chloride), and vegetable oil (olive oil) as permeation enhancers. The patches were subjected to physicochemical, in vitro release and ex vivo permeation studies. On the basis of in vitro release performance, ERL 100:ERS 100 in the ratio of 3:2 was selected for incorporation of permeation enhancers. The permeation studies showed that formulation containing 10% span 20 (OD3) exhibited greatest cumulative amount of drug permeated (19.02 ± 0.21 mg) in 72 h, so OD3 was concluded as optimized formulation and assessed for pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, and skin irritation potential. In vivo studies of optimized olanzapine patch in rabbit model revealed prolongation of action with Frel 116.09% during 72-h study period. Neuroleptic efficacy of transdermal patch was comparable to oral formulation during rotarod and grip test in Wistar albino rats with no skin irritation. Thus, developed formulation of olanzapine is expected to improve the patient compliance, form better dosage regimen, and provide maintenance therapy to psychotic patients.

Quetiapine Fumarate Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carrier for Enhancing Oral Bioavailability: Design, Development and Pharmacokinetic Assessment.

AIMS: The study aimed at developing and characterizing Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC) of Quetiapine Fumarate (QF) by Design of Experiment (DoE) for the enhancement of bioavailability. BACKGROUND: QF, an anti-psychotic drug, has an oral bioavailability of 9% due to hepatic first- pass metabolism necessitating the use of high doses. Its side effects are dose -related and enhancement in bioavailability would result in minimization of side effects. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was the enhancement of bioavailability of the NLC of QF by preferential lymphatic uptake. METHODS: Hot emulsification-ultrasonication was the method of formulation using PrecirolATO5 and Oleic acid as solid and liquid lipids respectively. Poloxamer188 and Phospholipon90G were used as surfactant and stabilizer respectively. Solid:liquid lipid ratio and Phospholipon90G amount were independent variables and percent Entrapment Efficiency (%EE), Particle Size (PS) dependent variables during optimization by Central Composite Design. RESULTS: The optimized formulation showed a %EE of 77.21%, PS of 140.2 nm and surface charge of - 19.9mV. Higuchi kinetic model was followed during the in-vitro release. TEM revealed spherical, smooth nanoparticles. A pharmacokinetic study in rats showed AUC0-∞ of QF-NLC to be 3.93 times that of QF in suspension, suggesting significant enhancement in bioavailability. An increase in AUC0-∞ in cycloheximide untreated rats' group of QF-NLC by 2.43 times as compared to cycloheximide treated group, confirmed lymphatic absorption of QF- NLC. CONCLUSION: The results validated DoE as an appropriate tool for developing QF loaded NLC and proved NLC to be a promising delivery system for the enhancement of oral bioavailability of QF.

Herbicide Glyphosate: Toxicity and Microbial Degradation.

Glyphosate is a non-specific organophosphate pesticide, which finds widespread application in shielding crops against the weeds. Its high solubility in hydrophilic solvents, especially water and high mobility allows the rapid leaching of the glyphosate into the soil leading to contamination of groundwater and accumulation into the plant tissues, therefore intricating the elimination of the herbicides. Despite the widespread application, only a few percentages of the total applied glyphosate serve the actual purpose, dispensing the rest in the environment, thus resulting in reduced crop yields, low quality agricultural products, deteriorating soil fertility, contributing to water pollution, and consequently threatening human and animal life. This review gives an insight into the toxicological effects of the herbicide glyphosate and current approaches to track and identify trace amounts of this agrochemical along with its biodegradability and possible remediating strategies. Efforts have also been made to summarize the biodegradation mechanisms and catabolic enzymes involved in glyphosate metabolism.

Ultrastructural analysis of oocytes of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus during postengorgement period as a tool to evaluate the cytotoxic effects of amitraz and deltamethrin on the germinative cells.

The present study utilizes the ultrastructural analysis of the fully engorged female Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) annulatus ticks, as a tool to evaluate the cytotoxic potential of deltamethrin and amitraz on the germinative cells. The ultrastructural analysis of the ovary of the normal (untreated) R (B.) annulatus revealed, oocytes in different stages of development, attached to the ovary wall by pedicel cells. The attachment site of oocyte to the pedicel cell was characterized by indentations of the plasma membrane. The oocyte was bound by three cell membranes viz., plasma membrane, chorion and basal lamina. The stages of oocytes were differentiated ultrastructurally based on the features of their outer membrane and the number and size of lipid and yolk droplets. Detailed day wise analysis of ultrastructural changes in the ovary during the post-engorgement period revealed the occurrence of the degenerative changes from day five onwards. These appeared first in the oocytes followed by the germinal epithelium. The ovary of ticks treated with methanol (control), revealed similar topographies as that of a normal ovary except for the presence of very few oocytes with ring shaped nucleoli. Ultrastructurally, treatment with deltamethrin produced more prominent and extensive morphological alterations when compared to amitraz. In the case of ticks treated with amitraz, the oocytes of stage IV and V showed wavy and disrupted outer boundaries along with the loss of integrity of the yolk droplets. Uneven nuclear membranes of stage II oocytes and cristolysis of mitochondria of mature oocytes were the other changes noticed. Ticks treated with deltamethrin revealed prominent modifications such as, detachment of the basal lamina, wrinkled boundary, inconsistent nuclear membrane, ring shaped nucleoli and chromatin clumping in the case of the early stage oocytes (I and II), whereas swelling and cristolysis of mitochondria were seen in mature oocytes. The study further indicated that, in addition to the previous proven neurotoxic effects, these compounds act directly on the ovary of tick.

Design and development of cefdinir niosomes for oral delivery.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to develop nonionic surfactant based vesicles (niosomes) to improve poor and variable oral bioavailability of cefdinir. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cefdinir niosomes were formulated by sonication method using varying concentration of surfactant (span 60), with and without soya lecithin, but the cholesterol ratio was kept constant in all the formulations. The influence of formulation variables such as surfactant concentration, soya lecithin presence or absence were optimized for size and entrapment efficiency. Drug excipient interaction studies were performed using FTIR, indicating compatibility of excipients with drug. RESULTS: The highest entrapment efficiency (74.56%) was observed when span 60, cefdinir, cholesterol and soya lecithin were used in the ratio of 5:1:1:1. The zeta sizer of the niosomal formulations showed the size range between 190 nm-1140 nm. The photomicrography showed round shape of vesicles and further nano size of niosomes was confirmed by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The optimized niosomal formulations (F11 and F6) exhibited sustained in-vitro release of 94.91% and 94.07% respectively upto 12 h. The ex-vivo permeation studies of optimized formulation revealed that the niosomal dispersion improved cefdinir permeability across goat intestinal membrane as compared to plain drug solution and marketed suspension (Adcef®). Antimicrobial activity studies revealed that the niosomes potentiated bacteriostatic activity of cefdinir as compared to Adcef®. CONCLUSION: The niosomal formulation could be one of the promising delivery system for cefdinir with improved oral bioavailability and controlled drug release profile.

Natural oils as skin permeation enhancers for transdermal delivery of olanzapine: in vitro and in vivo evaluation.

The feasibility of development of transdermal delivery system of olanzapine utilizing natural oils as permeation enhancers was investigated. Penetration enhancing potential of corn (maize) oil, groundnut oil and jojoba oil on in vitro permeation of olanzapine across rat skin was studied. The magnitude of flux enhancement factor with corn oil, groundnut oil and jojoba oil was 7.06, 5.31 and 1.9 respectively at 5mg/ml concentration in solvent system. On the basis of in vitro permeation studies, eudragit based matrix type transdermal patches of olanzapine were fabricated using optimized concentrations of natural oils as permeation enhancers. All transdermal patches were found to be uniform with respect to physical characteristics. The interaction studies carried out by comparing the results of ultraviolet, HPLC and FTIR analyses for the pure drug, polymers and mixture of drug and polymers indicated no chemical interaction between the drug and excipients. Corn oil containing unsaturated fatty acids was found to be promising natural permeation enhancer for transdermal delivery of olanzapine with greatest cumulative amount of drug permeated (1010.68 µg/cm²/h) up to 24 h and caused no skin irritation. The fabricated transdermal patches were found to be stable. The pharmacokinetic characteristics of the final optimized matrix patch (T2) were determined after transdermal application to rabbits. The calculated relative bioavailability of TDDS was 113.6 % as compared to oral administration of olanzapine. The therapeutic effectiveness of optimized transdermal system was confirmed by tranquillizing activity in rotarod and grip mice model.

HIV / AIDS control in Kerala: some reflections.

PIP: Worldwide, it has been shown that the spread of HIV/AIDS is influenced by sociopolitical factors. It is not clear, however, how such factors have influenced the spread in Kerala. Any health program developed and implemented without attention to key sociopolitical factors will likely fail to deliver the desired results. That has happened in Kerala where the state health department, through its state AIDS cell, has implemented the same National AIDS Control Organization program in many different sites without making allowance for the varying ethnic differences in the state. The issue of relative sensitivity, irrelevant data interpretation, high risk group versus high risk factor, nonexistent political will, neglect of nongovernmental organization experience, and the need for a policy revision are discussed.^ieng