Pten controls B-cell responsiveness and germinal center reaction by regulating the expression of IgD BCR.

In contrast to other B-cell antigen receptor (BCR) classes, the function of IgD BCR on mature B cells remains largely elusive as mature B cells co-express IgM, which is sufficient for development, survival, and activation of B cells. Here, we show that IgD expression is regulated by the forkhead box transcription factor FoxO1, thereby shifting the responsiveness of mature B cells towards recognition of multivalent antigen. FoxO1 is repressed by phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling and requires the lipid phosphatase Pten for its activation. Consequently, Pten-deficient B cells expressing knock-ins for BCR heavy and light chain genes are unable to upregulate IgD. Furthermore, in the presence of autoantigen, Pten-deficient B cells cannot eliminate the autoreactive BCR specificity by secondary light chain gene recombination. Instead, Pten-deficient B cells downregulate BCR expression and become unresponsive to further BCR-mediated stimulation. Notably, we observed a delayed germinal center (GC) reaction by IgD-deficient B cells after immunization with trinitrophenyl-ovalbumin (TNP-Ova), a commonly used antigen for T-cell-dependent antibody responses. Together, our data suggest that the activation of IgD expression by Pten/FoxO1 results in mature B cells that are selectively responsive to multivalent antigen and are capable of initiating rapid GC reactions and T-cell-dependent antibody responses.

Continuous signaling of CD79b and CD19 is required for the fitness of Burkitt lymphoma B cells.

Expression of the B-cell antigen receptor (BCR) is essential not only for the development but also for the maintenance of mature B cells. Similarly, many B-cell lymphomas, including Burkitt lymphoma (BL), require continuous BCR signaling for their tumor growth. This growth is driven by immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) and PI3 kinase (PI3K) signaling. Here, we employ CRISPR/Cas9 to delete BCR and B-cell co-receptor genes in the human BL cell line Ramos. We find that Ramos B cells require the expression of the BCR signaling component Igß (CD79b), and the co-receptor CD19, for their fitness and competitive growth in culture. Furthermore, we show that in the absence of any other BCR component, Igß can be expressed on the B-cell surface, where it is found in close proximity to CD19 and signals in an ITAM-dependent manner. These data suggest that Igß and CD19 are part of an alternative B-cell signaling module that use continuous ITAM/PI3K signaling to promote the survival of B lymphoma and normal B cells.

A symmetric geometry of transmembrane domains inside the B cell antigen receptor complex.

B lymphocytes have the ability to sense thousands of structurally different antigens and produce cognate antibodies against these molecules. For this they carry on their surface multiple copies of the B cell antigen receptor (BCR) comprising the membrane-bound Ig (mIg) molecule and the Igα/Igß heterodimer functioning as antigen binding and signal transducing components, respectively. The mIg is a symmetric complex of 2 identical membrane-bound heavy chains (mHC) and 2 identical light chains. How the symmetric mIg molecule is asymmetrically associated with only one Igα/Igß heterodimer has been a puzzle. Here we describe that Igα and Igß both carry on one side of their α-helical transmembrane domain a conserved amino acid motif. By a mutational analysis in combination with a BCR rebuilding approach, we show that this motif is required for the retention of unassembled Igα or Igß molecules inside the endoplasmic reticulum and the binding of the Igα/Igß heterodimer to the mIg molecule. We suggest that the BCR forms within the lipid bilayer of the membrane a symmetric Igα-mHC:mHC-Igß complex that is stabilized by an aromatic proline-tyrosine interaction. Outside the membrane this symmetry is broken by the disulfide-bridged dimerization of the extracellular Ig domains of Igα and Igß. However, symmetry of the receptor can be regained by a dimerization of 2 BCR complexes as suggested by the dissociation activation model.

[Identification of Cordyceps cicadae and Tolypocladium dujiaolongae based on ITS sequences and chemical pattern recognition method].

Based on ITS sequences, the molecular identification of Cordyceps cicadae and Tolypocladium dujiaolongae was carried out, and high-performance liquid chromatography(HPLC) fingerprint combined with chemical pattern recognition method was established to differentiate C. cicadae from its adulterant T. dujiaolongae. The genomic DNA from 10 batches of C. cicadae and five batches of T. dujiaolongae was extracted, and ITS sequences were amplified by PCR and sequenced. The stable differential sites of these two species were compared and the phylogenetic tree was constructed via MEGA 7.0. HPLC was used to establish the fingerprints of C. cicadae and T. dujiaolongae, and similarity evaluation, cluster analysis(CA), principal component analysis(PCA), and partial least squares discriminant analysis(PLS-DA) were applied to investigate the chemical pattern recognition. The result showed that the sources of these two species were different, and there were 115 stable differential sites in ITS sequences of C. cicadae and T. dujiao-longae. The phylogenetic tree could distinguish them effectively. HPLC fingerprints of 18 batches of C. cicadae and 5 batches of T. dujiaolongae were established. The results of CA, PCA, and PLS-DA were consistent, which could distinguish them well, indicating that there were great differences in chemical components between C. cicadae and T. dujiaolongae. The results of PLS-DA showed that six components such as uridine, guanosine, adenosine, and N~6-(2-hydroxyethyl) adenosine were the main differential markers of the two species. ITS sequences and HPLC fingerprint combined with the chemical pattern recognition method can serve as the identification and differentiation methods for C. cicadae and T. dujiaolongae.

Long non-coding RNA LINC00504 regulates the Warburg effect in ovarian cancer through inhibition of miR-1244.

Ovarian cancer (OC) is the most lethal gynecologic malignancy and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been acknowledged as important regulators in human OC. This study aimed to investigate the function and underlying mechanisms of LINC00504 in OC. The expression levels of LINC00504 in human OC tissues and cell lines were investigated by qRT-PCR analysis. The OC cell proliferation, and apoptosis were evaluated by MTT assay, colony-formation assay, Caspase-3 activity assay, and nucleosome ELISA assay, respectively. The metabolic shift in OC cells was examined by aerobic glycolysis analysis. Dual-luciferase activity reporter assay and mRNA-miRNA pull-down assay were conducted to validate the interaction between LINC00504 and miR-1244. LINC00504 was upregulated in OC cell lines and specimens. Knockdown of LINC00504 inhibited cell proliferation, enhanced apoptosis, decreased glycolysis-related gene (PKM2, HK2, and PDK1) expression, and altered aerobic glycolysis in OC cells and vice versa. LINC00504 downregulated miR-1244 expression levels by acting as an endogenous sponge of miR-1244. Inhibition of miR-1244 diminished the effects of LINC00504 on OC cells. Our study shows that LINC00504 promotes OC cell progression and stimulates aerobic glycolysis by interacting with miR-1244, which indicates that LINC00504 might act as a promising therapeutic target for OC treatment.

Recent expansion and adaptive evolution of the carcinoembryonic antigen family in bats of the Yangochiroptera subgroup.

BACKGROUND: Expansions of gene families are predictive for ongoing genetic adaptation to environmental cues. We describe such an expansion of the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) gene family in certain bat families. Members of the CEA family in humans and mice are exploited as cellular receptors by a number of pathogens, possibly due to their function in immunity and reproduction. The CEA family is composed of CEA-related cell adhesion molecules (CEACAMs) and secreted pregnancy-specific glycoproteins (PSGs). PSGs are almost exclusively expressed by trophoblast cells at the maternal-fetal interface. The reason why PSGs exist only in a minority of mammals is still unknown. RESULTS: Analysis of the CEA gene family in bats revealed that in certain bat families, belonging to the subgroup Yangochiroptera but not the Yinpterochiroptera subgroup an expansion of the CEA gene family took place, resulting in approximately one hundred CEA family genes in some species of the Vespertilionidae. The majority of these genes encode secreted PSG-like proteins (further referred to as PSG). Remarkably, we found strong evidence that the ligand-binding domain (IgV-like domain) of PSG is under diversifying positive selection indicating that bat PSGs may interact with structurally highly variable ligands. Such ligands might represent bacterial or viral pathogen adhesins. We have identified two distinct clusters of PSGs in three Myotis species. The two PSG cluster differ in the amino acids under positive selection. One cluster was only expanded in members of the Vespertilionidae while the other was found to be expanded in addition in members of the Miniopteridae and Mormoopidae. Thus one round of PSG expansion may have occurred in an ancestry of all three families and a second only in Vespertilionidae. Although maternal ligands of PSGs may exist selective challenges by two distinct pathogens seem to be likely responsible for the expansion of PSGs in Vespertilionidae. CONCLUSIONS: The rapid expansion of PSGs in certain bat species together with selection for diversification suggest that bat PSGs could be part of a pathogen defense system by serving as decoy receptors and/or regulators of feto-maternal interactions.

Anti-lyssaviral activity of interferons κ and ω from the serotine bat, Eptesicus serotinus.

UNLABELLED: Interferons (IFNs) are cytokines produced by host cells in response to the infection with pathogens. By binding to the corresponding receptors, IFNs trigger different pathways to block intracellular replication and growth of pathogens and to impede the infection of surrounding cells. Due to their key role in host defense against viral infections, as well as for clinical therapies, the IFN responses and regulation mechanisms are well studied. However, studies of type I IFNs have mainly focused on alpha interferon (IFN-α) and IFN-ß subtypes. Knowledge of IFN-κ and IFN-ω is limited. Moreover, most studies are performed in humans or mouse models but not in the original host of zoonotic pathogens. Bats are important reservoirs and transmitters of zoonotic viruses such as lyssaviruses. A few studies have shown an antiviral activity of IFNs in fruit bats. However, the function of type I IFNs against lyssaviruses in bats has not been studied yet. Here, IFN-κ and IFN-ω genes from the European serotine bat, Eptesicus serotinus, were cloned and functionally characterized. E. serotinus IFN-κ and IFN-ω genes are intronless and well conserved between microchiropteran species. The promoter regions of both genes contain essential regulatory elements for transcription factors. In vitro studies indicated a strong activation of IFN signaling by recombinant IFN-ω, whereas IFN-κ displayed weaker activation. Noticeably, both IFNs inhibit to different extents the replication of different lyssaviruses in susceptible bat cell lines. The present study provides functional data on the innate host defense against lyssaviruses in endangered European bats. IMPORTANCE: We describe here for the first time the molecular and functional characterization of two type I interferons (IFN-κ and -ω) from European serotine bat (Eptesicus serotinus). The importance of this study is mainly based on the fact that very limited information about the early innate immune response against bat lyssaviruses in their natural host serotine bats is yet available. Generally, whereas the antiviral activity of other type I interferons is well studied, the functional involvement of IFN-κ and -ω has not yet been investigated.

Allograft inflammatory factor-1 stimulates hemocyte immune activation by enhancing phagocytosis and expression of inflammatory cytokines in Crassostrea gigas.

Allograft inflammatory factor-1 (AIF-1) is a calcium-binding cytokine associated with immune cell activation and inflammatory response. Presently, we have identified and characterized an AIF-1 in a marine bivalve mollusk, Crassostrea gigas, and designated it as CgAIF-1. The full-length CgAIF-1 cDNA is 794 bp, encoding a protein of 149 amino acids with two conserved EF hand Ca(2+)-binding motifs. CgAIF-1 is constitutively expressed in various tissues with enriched expression in hemocytes. Moreover, CgAIF-1 transcription is induced by multiple Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs), including poly (I: C), LPS, PGN, HKLM and HKVA, but is limited by 1,3-ß-glucan. Furthermore, recombinant CgAIF-1 can specifically stimulate phagocytic ability of granulocytes, but not of intermediate cells and hyalinocytes. CgAIF-1 also enhances mRNA levels of MIF, TNF and IL-17. These results provide the first functional evidence that CgAIF-1 is involved in hemocyte activation in C. gigas, revealing conserved functions of AIF-1 in host defense from mollusks to mammals.

Two superoxide dismutase (SOD) with different subcellular localizations involved in innate immunity in Crassostrea hongkongensis.

SODs are ubiquitous metalloenzymes that can scavenge superoxides in response to various stresses. In the present study, full-length cDNAs of two SOD genes were isolated from Crassostrea hongkongensis (designated ChMnSOD and ChCuZnSOD). The cDNAs are 997 and 918 bp in length with ORFs of 675 and 468 bp (encoding 225 and 156 amino acids), respectively. Sequence analysis revealed a conserved Sod_Fe domain in ChMnSOD, and a Sod_Cu_Zn domain in ChCuZnSOD. Subcellular localization of ChMnSOD is mitochondrial while intracellular expression of ChCuZnSOD is detected. Although their expression overlaps in a wide range of tissues, ChMnSOD mRNA expression is high in gonad while ChCuZnSOD's is strong in adductor muscle. After infection by Vibrio alginolyticus, ChMnSOD mRNA was up-regulated 5 fold (p < 0.05) at 4 h, but returned to normal level 6 h post-infection. The expression of ChCuZnSOD gene showed a slight delay to the infection challenge and was elevated roughly 4 fold after 8 h (p < 0.05), returning to normal at 12 h post-infection. The elevated transcript levels of the two SOD genes in response to V. alginolyticus infection highlights their important functions in eliminating toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) and protecting organisms from bacterial invasion in C. hongkongensis.

Two homologues of inhibitor of NF-kappa B (IκB) are involved in the immune defense of the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas.

A novel homologue of IκB was cloned from a hemocyte cDNA of Crassostrea gigas (designed as CgIκB2). The complete cDNA of CgIκB2 includes an open reading frame (ORF) of 1032 bp, and 3' and 5'untranslated regions (UTR's) of 141 bp and 279 bp, respectively. The ORF encodes a putative protein of 343 amino acids with a calculated molecular weight of approximately 37.8 kDa. Alignment analysis reveals that CgIκB2 contains a conserved degradation motif and six ankyrin repeats. A phylogenetic analysis suggests that a gene duplication event prior to the gastropod-bivalve divergence resulted in the emergence of two IκB homologues in C. gigas. Distinct maximal expression patterns of CgIκB1 in hemocytes and CgIκB2 in the gonad were observed. CgIκB1 and CgIκB2 expression in response to bacterial challenge is similar and inducible. Moreover, both CgIκB1 and CgIκB2 are able to inhibit NF-κb/Rel activating transcription in S2 or HEK293 cells. Our findings demonstrate that both CgIκB1 and CgIκB2 are involved in immune defense in C. gigas through regulation of NF-κB/Rel activity.

A novel sialic acid binding lectin with anti-bacterial activity from the Hong Kong oyster (Crassostrea hongkongensis).

Lectins play an important role in immune recognition and host defense. In the present study, a full-length cDNA encoding a novel sialic acid binding lectin was cloned from Crassostrea hongkongensis (designated Ch-salectin) by rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE). It is 531 bp in length, containing a 21 bp 5' UTR, a 39 bp 3' UTR and a 468 bp ORF coding for 156 amino acids. The Ch-salectin protein contains a signal peptide and a conserved complement component C1q domain. The purified recombinant MBP-tagged Ch-salectin protein can bind to a sialic acid containing protein fetuin and significantly inhibit the growth of both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Furthermore, the transcription of Ch-salectin was inducible and significantly up-regulated during Vibrio alginolyticus infection. Thus, these results highlight the essential roles of Ch-salectin in immune recognition and host defense against bacterial infection in C. hongkongensis.

An Mpeg (macrophage expressed gene) from the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas: molecular characterization and gene expression.

Mpegs (macrophage expressed genes) encode members of the MACPF (membrane-attack complex/perforin) protein superfamily that play essential roles in innate immunity. In the present study, a homolog of Mpeg1 was identified in Crassostrea gigas and designed Cg-Mpeg1. The complete cDNA of Cg-Mpeg1 is 2781 bp in length, containing an ORF of 2226 bp, which encodes a putative protein of 742 amino acids with a predicted 19-aa hydrophobic signal peptide, an MACPF domain, and a transmembrane domain. Phylogenetic analysis shows that Cg-Mpeg1 is similar to other mollusk MACPF proteins and might originate in an ancient ancestor gene before the divergence of protostomes and deuterostomes. Localization study revealed that Cg-Mpeg1 protein is found primarily in late endosomes. The MACPF domain from Cg-Mpeg1 exhibits significant antibacterial activity to both Gram-negative and positive bacteria. Furthermore, Real-time Quantitative PCR analysis showed that Cg-Mpeg1 is expressed in all tissues detected with highest expression in gill and gonads. Moreover, Mpeg1 mRNA levels are significantly up-regulated following infection with Vibrio alginolyticus. These results highlight that Cg-Mpeg1 plays an essential role in host defense and elimination of pathogens in C. gigas.

The second bactericidal permeability increasing protein (BPI) and its revelation of the gene duplication in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas.

A novel homolog of BPI was cloned from the hemocyte cDNA of Crassostrea gigas and designed as Cg-BPI2, which share the highest sequence identity with the well-known Cg-BPI (designed as Cg-BPI1). The complete cDNA of Cg-BPI2 included an open reading frame (ORF) of 1440 bp, and 3' and 5' untranslated regions (UTR's) of 49 bp and 166 bp, respectively. The ORF encoded a putative protein of 479 amino acids with predicted 22-aa hydrophobic signal peptide. The phylogenetic analysis showed that one of the gene duplications could have resulted in the emergence of two homologs of BPI in oysters, which probably might have occurred after the gastropod-bivalve divergence. Furthermore, molecular modeling analysis showed that both Cg-BPIs are similar to a highly extended boomerang like shape of human BPI, consisting of an N- and C-terminal barrel and a central ß-sheet. Comparison of the electrostatic surface potentials revealed that surfaces of Cg-BPI2 have more intense positive charge than that of human BPI and the Cg-BPI1. The recombinant N-terminal barrel domain showed a high affinity to LPS and can effectively kill Gram-negative bacteria. The mRNAs of two Cg-BPIs were observed in all tissues examined with the highest expression in gills. The mRNAs expression profiles in response to bacterial challenge revealed that they were inducible under infection, but with a distinct and complementary expression patterns between Cg-BPI1 and Cg-BPI2. Our findings of this second BPI gene demonstrated presence of its gene duplication for the first time in invertebrate and it appears to be one of effective LPS-binding AMPs in elimination of Gram-negative pathogens C. gigas.

Cloning and characterization of two ferritin subunit genes from bay scallop, Argopecten irradians (Lamarck 1819).

We have cloned two full-length cDNAs from two ferritin genes (Aifer1 and Aifer2) of the bay scallop, Argopecten irradians (Lamarck 1819). The cDNAs are 1,019 and 827 bp in length and encode proteins of 171 and 173 amino acids, respectively. The 5' UTR of each contains a conserved iron response element (IRE) motif. Sequence analyses reveal that both proteins belong to the H-ferritin family with seven conserved amino acids in the ferroxidase center. Highest expression of Aifer1 is found in the mantle and adductor muscle, while that of Aifer2 is only in the latter tissue. These Aifer genes are differentially expressed following bacterial challenge of the scallop. The expression level of Aifer1 was acutely up-regulated (over 10 fold) at 6 h post-bacteria injection, whereas Aifer2 expression was not significantly changed by bacterial challenge. Both genes were effectively expressed in E. coli BL21 (DE3), producing proteins of similar molecular weight, approximately 23 kDa. Purified Aifer1 and Aifer2 proteins exhibited iron-chelating activity of 33.1% and 30.4%, respectively, at a concentration of 5 mg/ml. Cations, Mg(2+), Zn(2+) and Ca(2+), depressed iron-chelating activity of both proteins. Additionally, the E. coli cells expressing recombinant Aifer1 and Aifer2 showed tolerance to H(2)O(2), providing a direct evidence of the antioxidation function of ferritin. The results presented in this study suggest important roles of Aifer1 and Aifer2 in the regulation of iron homeostasis, immune response, and antioxidative stress in A. irradians.

In silico cloning, expression of Rieske-like apoprotein gene and protein subcellular localization in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas.

Rieske protein gene in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas was obtained by in silico cloning for the first time, and its expression profiles and subcellular localization were determined, respectively. The full-length cDNA of Cgisp is 985 bp in length and contains a 5'- and 3'-untranslated regions of 35 and 161 bp, respectively, with an open reading frame of 786 bp encoding a protein of 262 amino acids. The predicted molecular weight of 30 kDa of Cgisp protein was verified by prokaryotic expression. Conserved Rieske [2Fe-2S] cluster binding sites and highly matched-pair tertiary structure with 3CWB_E (Gallus gallus) were revealed by homologous analysis and molecular modeling. Eleven putative SNP sites and two conserved hexapeptide sequences, box I (THLGC) and II (PCHGS), were detected by multiple alignments. Real-time PCR analysis showed that Cgisp is expressed in a wide range of tissues, with adductor muscle exhibiting the top expression level, suggesting its biological function of energy transduction. The GFP tagging Cgisp indicated a mitochondrial localization, further confirming its physiological function.

Prognostic and Clinicopathological Significance of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1α in Endometrial Cancer: A Meta-Analysis.

BACKGROUND: Current reports on the prognostic and predictive value of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) in endometrial carcinoma are inconsistent. Therefore, we conducted this meta-analysis to precisely evaluate the association of HIF-1α expression with susceptibility, clinical features, and prognosis of endometrial cancer. METHODS: Eligible studies that assessed the role of HIF-1α protein expression, immunohistochemistry detection, disease susceptibility, clinical features, and prognosis of endometrial cancer were searched from the Embase, Pubmed, and Web of Science databases. Stata 14.0 software was used to merge and compute pooled hazard ratios (HR) and odds ratios (OR). Information including HIF-1α protein expression and clinical progression of endometrial cancer was extracted. The pooled HR and OR with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI) were used to estimate the strength of these associations. RESULTS: A total of 25 studies were included in the analysis. HIF-1α protein expression in endometrial cancer tissue was significantly higher than that in normal tissues (OR = 15.79, 95% CI = 8.44-29.52, P < 0.05). Endometrial cancer patients with higher HIF-1α protein expression had poorer prognosis compared to patients with low HIF-1α protein expression (HR = 2.29, 95% CI = 1.68-2.90, P < 0.05). In addition, high HIF-1α protein expression was significantly associated with endometrial cancer grade, lymph node metastasis, and myometrial invasion (grade in Caucasians: OR = 3.09, 95% CI = 1.63-5.85, P < 0.05; lymph node metastasis: OR = 3.09, 95% CI = 1.63-5.85, P < 0.05; myometrial invasion: OR = 2.26, 95% CI = 2.15-5.08, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: HIF-1α overexpression was significantly associated with increased risk, advanced clinical progression, and poor prognosis in endometrial cancer patients.

Immunoglobulin expression in the endoplasmic reticulum shapes the metabolic fitness of B lymphocytes.

The major function of B lymphocytes is to sense antigens and to produce protective antibodies after activation. This function requires the expression of a B-cell antigen receptor (BCR), and evolutionary conserved mechanisms seem to exist that ensure that B cells without a BCR do not develop nor survive in the periphery. Here, we show that the loss of BCR expression on Burkitt lymphoma cells leads to decreased mitochondrial function and impaired metabolic flexibility. Strikingly, this phenotype does not result from the absence of a classical Syk-dependent BCR signal but rather from compromised ER expansion. We show that the reexpression of immunoglobulins (Ig) in the absence of the BCR signaling subunits Igα and Igß rescues the observed metabolic defects. We demonstrate that immunoglobulin expression is needed to maintain ER homeostasis not only in lymphoma cells but also in resting B cells. Our study provides evidence that the expression of BCR components, which is sensed in the ER and shapes mitochondrial function, represents a novel mechanism of metabolic control in B cells.

Characterization of a deep-sea sediment metagenomic clone that produces water-soluble melanin in Escherichia coli.

To access to the microbial genetic resources of deep-sea sediment by a culture-independent approach, the sediment DNA was extracted and cloned into fosmid vector (pCC1FOS) generating a library of 39,600 clones with inserts of 24-45 kb. The clone fss6 producing red-brown pigment was isolated and characterized. The pigment was identified as melanin according to its physico-chemical characteristics. Subcloning and sequences analyses of fss6 demonstrated that one open reading frame (ORF2) was responsible for the pigment production. The deduced protein from ORF2 revealed significant amino acid similarity to the 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD) from deep-sea bacteria Idiomarina loihiensis. Further study demonstrated that the production of melanin was correlated with homogentistic acid (HGA). The p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate produced by the Escherichia coli host was converted to HGA through the oxidation reaction of introduced HPPD. The results demonstrate that expression of DNA extracted directly from the environment might generate applicable microbial gene products. The construction and analysis of the metagenomic library from deep-sea sediment contributed to our understanding for the reservoir of unexploited deep-sea microorganisms.

Establishment of Myotis myotis cell lines--model for investigation of host-pathogen interaction in a natural host for emerging viruses.

Bats are found to be the natural reservoirs for many emerging viruses. In most cases, severe clinical signs caused by such virus infections are normally not seen in bats. This indicates differences in the virus-host interactions and underlines the necessity to develop natural host related models to study these phenomena. Due to the strict protection of European bat species, immortalized cell lines are the only alternative to investigate the innate anti-virus immune mechanisms. Here, we report about the establishment and functional characterization of Myotis myotis derived cell lines from different tissues: brain (MmBr), tonsil (MmTo), peritoneal cavity (MmPca), nasal epithelium (MmNep) and nervus olfactorius (MmNol) after immortalization by SV 40 large T antigen. The usefulness of these cell lines to study antiviral responses has been confirmed by analysis of their susceptibility to lyssavirus infection and the mRNA patterns of immune-relevant genes after poly I:C stimulation. Performed experiments indicated varying susceptibility to lyssavirus infection with MmBr being considerably less susceptible than the other cell lines. Further investigation demonstrated a strong activation of interferon mediated antiviral response in MmBr contributing to its resistance. The pattern recognition receptors: RIG-I and MDA5 were highly up-regulated during rabies virus infection in MmBr, suggesting their involvement in promotion of antiviral responses. The presence of CD14 and CD68 in MmBr suggested MmBr cells are microglia-like cells which play a key role in host defense against infections in the central nervous system (CNS). Thus the expression pattern of MmBr combined with the observed limitation of lyssavirus replication underpin a protective mechanism of the CNS controlling the lyssavirus infection. Overall, the established cell lines are important tools to analyze antiviral innate immunity in M. myotis against neurotropic virus infections and present a valuable tool for a broad spectrum of future investigations in cellular biology of M. myotis.

Characteristic and functional analysis of toll-like receptors (TLRs) in the lophotrocozoan, Crassostrea gigas, reveals ancient origin of TLR-mediated innate immunity.

The evolution of TLR-mediated innate immunity is a fundamental question in immunology. Here, we report the characterization and functional analysis of four TLR members in the lophotrochozoans Crassostreagigas (CgTLRs). All CgTLRs bear a conserved domain organization and have a close relationship with TLRs in ancient non-vertebrate chordates. In HEK293 cells, every CgTLR could constitutively activate NF-κB responsive reporter, but none of the PAMPs tested could stimulate CgTLR-activated NF-κB induction. Subcellular localization showed that CgTLR members have similar and dual distribution on late endosomes and plasma membranes. Moreover, CgTLRs and CgMyD88 mRNA show a consistent response to multiple PAMP challenges in oyster hemocytes. As CgTLR-mediated NF-κB activation is dependent on CgMyD88, we designed a blocking peptide for CgTLR signaling that would inhibit CgTLR-CgMyD88 dependent NF-κB activation. This was used to demonstrate that a Vibrio parahaemolyticus infection-induced enhancement of degranulation and increase of cytokines TNF mRNA in hemocytes, could be inhibited by blocking CgTLR signaling. In summary, our study characterized the primitive TLRs in the lophotrocozoan C. gigas and demonstrated a fundamental role of TLR signaling in infection-induced hemocyte activation. This provides further evidence for an ancient origin of TLR-mediated innate immunity.