The effects of mindfulness-based interventions in medical students: a systematic review.

The number of studies on the effects of mindfulness on healthcare professionals is increasing. The main aim of this study was to collate the quantitative results of original studies analyzing the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on a variety of outcomes in medical students. We also analyzed how the study design and characteristics of the intervention affect the results, and identified qualitative effects of mindfulness interventions. A literature search was performed in different databases in June 2020. Original articles meeting the following criteria were included: (1) at least 50% of the participants were medical students, (2) included a mindfulness intervention, (3) analyzed any outcome relating to mindfulness intervention, (4) peer-reviewed (5) written in English. Eventually, 31 articles including 24 different samples were included. Over half of the studies were RCTs. In over half of the studies, the intervention was 4- to 10-week original Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction or Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy or a modification of these. In general, satisfaction with the interventions was good. Based on a meta-analysis, after the intervention, the intervention group had statistically significantly fewer symptoms of stress and distress and had higher mindfulness than the controls. The beneficial effects persisted in follow-ups over months or years. Both long and shorter courses and courses with and without face-to-face sessions were effective. Both controlled and uncontrolled studies had statistically significant results. Qualitative results revealed potential factors behind the quantitative effects. The number of studies on mindfulness interventions in medical students has increased drastically. Mindfulness-based interventions seem to offer a good possibility to enhance medical students' well-being.

Associations of lipids in adolescence and adulthood with self- and other-directed compassion in adulthood.

Self- and other-directed compassion have been linked with better mental and physical health but research on factors contributing to their development is scarce. Previous studies indicate a possible causal relationship of lipids with personality and socioemotional functioning. As an extension to earlier research, in the present study we examine whether lipids assessed in adolescence and adulthood are associated with self-compassion and other-directed compassion in adulthood. The study utilizes data on lipids from two follow-ups in the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1986 at ages 15-16 and 33-35. In the latter follow-up also self-compassion and other-directed compassion were assessed with the self-compassion scale - short form and the subscale for compassion in the dispositional positive emotions scale, respectively. The sample for the cross-sectional associations of lipids in adulthood with the compassion variables in adulthood includes 1,459 participants, whereas the sample for the longitudinal associations of lipids in adolescence and the compassion variables in adulthood consists of 1,509 participants. The associations were examined with hierarchical linear regression (lipids as continuous variables) and univariate general linear model (lipids as categorical variables). The results suggest that in women, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol in adolescence is associated with high empathic concern (a component of other-directed compassion) in adulthood. The results show further that, in women, an HDL cholesterol level above 1.2 mmol/L in adulthood is associated with high other-directed compassion and empathic concern in adulthood. The present study provides tentative evidence that biological factors such as lipids might play a role in the development of empathic concern and other-directed compassion.

Three genetic-environmental networks for human personality.

Phylogenetic, developmental, and brain-imaging studies suggest that human personality is the integrated expression of three major systems of learning and memory that regulate (1) associative conditioning, (2) intentionality, and (3) self-awareness. We have uncovered largely disjoint sets of genes regulating these dissociable learning processes in different clusters of people with (1) unregulated temperament profiles (i.e., associatively conditioned habits and emotional reactivity), (2) organized character profiles (i.e., intentional self-control of emotional conflicts and goals), and (3) creative character profiles (i.e., self-aware appraisal of values and theories), respectively. However, little is known about how these temperament and character components of personality are jointly organized and develop in an integrated manner. In three large independent genome-wide association studies from Finland, Germany, and Korea, we used a data-driven machine learning method to uncover joint phenotypic networks of temperament and character and also the genetic networks with which they are associated. We found three clusters of similar numbers of people with distinct combinations of temperament and character profiles. Their associated genetic and environmental networks were largely disjoint, and differentially related to distinct forms of learning and memory. Of the 972 genes that mapped to the three phenotypic networks, 72% were unique to a single network. The findings in the Finnish discovery sample were blindly and independently replicated in samples of Germans and Koreans. We conclude that temperament and character are integrated within three disjoint networks that regulate healthy longevity and dissociable systems of learning and memory by nearly disjoint sets of genetic and environmental influences.

Bidirectional pathways between psychosocial risk factors and paranoid ideation in a general nonclinical population.

We investigated (a) whether psychosocial factors (experienced stress, anticipatory worry, social detachment, sleeping disturbances, alcohol use) predict the course of paranoid ideation between the ages of 24 to 50 years and (b) whether the predictive relationships are more likely to proceed from the psychosocial factors to paranoid ideation, or vice versa. The participants (N = 1534-1553) came from the population-based Young Finns study. Paranoid ideation and psychosocial factors were assessed by reliable self-report questionnaires in 2001, 2007, and 2011/2012. The data were analyzed using growth curve and structural equation models. High experienced stress, anticipatory worry, social detachment, frequent sleeping disturbances, and frequent alcohol use predicted more paranoid ideation. More risk factors predicted increasing paranoid ideation. There were bidirectional predictive relationships of paranoid ideation with experienced stress, anticipatory worry, social detachment, and sleeping disturbances. The link between alcohol use and paranoid ideation was only correlative. In conclusion, paranoid ideation increases by reciprocal interactions with stress, worry, social detachment, and sleeping disturbances. The findings support the threat-anticipation model of paranoid ideation, providing important implications for treatment of paranoia.

School-based mindfulness intervention for depressive symptoms in adolescence: For whom is it most effective?

INTRODUCTION: There is accumulating evidence for the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in alleviating depressive symptoms. A crucial question is, however, whether mindfulness interventions are more effective for some individuals than others, depending on individual characteristics before a mindfulness intervention. We exploratorily investigated whether the effectiveness of school-based mindfulness intervention against depressive symptoms is modified by executive functions, rumination, and emotion regulation among adolescents. METHODS: The longitudinal data included adolescents with at least mild depressive symptoms at the baseline (n = 369, at the 6th-8th grade, 68.4% female) who were randomized into a 9-week school-based mindfulness intervention group, into an active control group receiving relaxation program, or into an inactive control group. Adolescents' executive functions, rumination, and emotion regulation (i.e., acceptance, catastrophizing, and positive reappraisal) were assessed at the baseline; and depressive symptoms at three time points (at the baseline and at 9-week and 6-month follow-ups). RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: In adolescents with at least mild depressive symptoms at the baseline, high catastrophizing, high acceptance, and low executive functions were found to increase the effectiveness of mindfulness-based intervention against depressive symptoms. There seemed to be some sex differences. Thus, when aiming to alleviate depressive symptoms, mindfulness-based intervention may possibly be more effective for adolescents with high catastrophizing, high acceptance, and low executive functioning (than for adolescents with the opposite dispositions). However, as this study was exploratory by nature and corrections for multiple testing were not used, the findings must be regarded as preliminary and need confirmation in further studies.

Uncovering the complex genetics of human temperament.

Experimental studies of learning suggest that human temperament may depend on the molecular mechanisms for associative conditioning, which are highly conserved in animals. The main genetic pathways for associative conditioning are known in experimental animals, but have not been identified in prior genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of human temperament. We used a data-driven machine learning method for GWAS to uncover the complex genotypic-phenotypic networks and environmental interactions related to human temperament. In a discovery sample of 2149 healthy Finns, we identified sets of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that cluster within particular individuals (i.e., SNP sets) regardless of phenotype. Second, we identified 3 clusters of people with distinct temperament profiles measured by the Temperament and Character Inventory regardless of genotype. Third, we found 51 SNP sets that identified 736 gene loci and were significantly associated with temperament. The identified genes were enriched in pathways activated by associative conditioning in animals, including the ERK, PI3K, and PKC pathways. 74% of the identified genes were unique to a specific temperament profile. Environmental influences measured in childhood and adulthood had small but significant effects. We confirmed the replicability of the 51 Finnish SNP sets in healthy Korean (90%) and German samples (89%), as well as their associations with temperament. The identified SNPs explained nearly all the heritability expected in each sample (37-53%) despite variable cultures and environments. We conclude that human temperament is strongly influenced by more than 700 genes that modulate associative conditioning by molecular processes for synaptic plasticity and long-term memory.

Uncovering the complex genetics of human character.

Human personality is 30-60% heritable according to twin and adoption studies. Hundreds of genetic variants are expected to influence its complex development, but few have been identified. We used a machine learning method for genome-wide association studies (GWAS) to uncover complex genotypic-phenotypic networks and environmental interactions. The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) measured the self-regulatory components of personality critical for health (i.e., the character traits of self-directedness, cooperativeness, and self-transcendence). In a discovery sample of 2149 healthy Finns, we identified sets of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that cluster within particular individuals (i.e., SNP sets) regardless of phenotype. Second, we identified five clusters of people with distinct profiles of character traits regardless of genotype. Third, we found 42 SNP sets that identified 727 gene loci and were significantly associated with one or more of the character profiles. Each character profile was related to different SNP sets with distinct molecular processes and neuronal functions. Environmental influences measured in childhood and adulthood had small but significant effects. We confirmed the replicability of 95% of the 42 SNP sets in healthy Korean and German samples, as well as their associations with character. The identified SNPs explained nearly all the heritability expected for character in each sample (50 to 58%). We conclude that self-regulatory personality traits are strongly influenced by organized interactions among more than 700 genes despite variable cultures and environments. These gene sets modulate specific molecular processes in brain for intentional goal-setting, self-reflection, empathy, and episodic learning and memory.

Effects of school-based mindfulness intervention on health-related quality of life: moderating effect of gender, grade, and independent practice in cluster randomized controlled trial.

OBJECT: We investigated the impact of a school-based 9-week mindfulness program vs. active control program (relaxation) and inactive control group on children's self-reported Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQoL) moderated by gender, grade, and independent practice. METHOD: In total 3519 (50/50% boys/girls) Finnish students aged 12-15 years from 56 schools were randomized into mindfulness intervention, active, and inactive control groups. HRQoL was measured at baseline, at 9 weeks, and at 26 weeks and analyzed with multilevel linear modeling. RESULTS: Significant improvement on HRQoL was found (ß = mean difference) (ß = 1.587, 95% CI 0.672-2.502, p < 0.001) after 9 weeks and at 26 weeks of follow-up among students in the mindfulness group as compared to the active control group. Moderating effects on HRQoL were found for gender, grade, and independent practice: girls, 7th and 8th grade students, and students with regular independent mindfulness practice benefited most. CONCLUSIONS: Gender and developmental stage may moderate the effects of mindfulness interventions on HRQoL and offer guidance in designing effective promotive interventions for children and adolescents. TRIAL REGISTRATION INFORMATION: Healthy Learning Mind-a school-based mindfulness and relaxation program: a study protocol for a cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT) ISRCTN18642659 retrospectively registered on 13 October 2015. The full trial protocol can be accessed at http://rdcu.be/t57S .

Risky emotional family environment in childhood and depression-related cytokines in adulthood: The protective role of compassion.

BACKGROUND: Previously, compassion has been found to protect against depressive symptoms, while emotional adversities in childhood are suggested to increase inflammatory responses. The current study investigated (a) whether emotional family environment in childhood predicts levels of such cytokines in adulthood that are previously found to be elevated in depression (interleukin [IL]-2, IL-6, IL-1b, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, interferon-gamma [IFN-γ], and tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α]) and (b) whether these associations are modified by compassion in adulthood. METHODS: The participants (N = 1,198-1,523) came from the prospective population-based Young Finns data. Emotional family environment and parental socioeconomic factors were evaluated in 1980; participants' compassion in 2001; and participants' cytokine levels and adulthood covariates in 2007. RESULTS: Risky emotional family environment in childhood predicted higher levels of IL-2, IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α in adulthood. Additionally, there were significant interaction effects between compassion and emotional risk in childhood, when predicting IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α. Specifically, individuals who grew up in a risky emotional family environment had on average higher levels of IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α in adulthood when combined with low compassion. CONCLUSIONS: In individuals coming from risky emotional family environments, high compassion for others may protect against elevated levels of cytokines previously linked with depression.

Genetic differential susceptibility to the parent-child relationship quality and the life span development of compassion.

The development of compassion for others might be influenced by the social experiences made during childhood and has a genetic component. No research has yet investigated whether the parent-child relationship quality interacts with genetic variation in the oxytocin and dopamine systems in predicting compassion over the life span. In the prospective Young Finns Study (N = 2099, 43.9% men), we examined the interaction between mother-reported emotional warmth and intolerance toward their child assessed in 1980 (age of participants, 3-18 years) and two established genetic risk scores for oxytocin levels and dopamine signaling activity. Dispositional compassion for others was measured with the Temperament and Character Inventory 1997, 2001, and 2012 (age of participants, 20-50 years). We found a gene-environment interaction (p = .031) that remained marginally significant after adjustment for multiple testing. In line with the differential susceptibility hypothesis, only participants who carry alleles associated with low dopamine signaling activity had higher levels of compassion when growing up with emotionally warm parents, whereas they had lower levels of compassion when their parents were emotionally cold. Children's genetic variability in the dopamine system might result in plasticity to early environmental influences that have a long-lasting effect on the development of compassion. However, our findings need replication.

Does Compassion Predict Blood Pressure and Hypertension? The Modifying Role of Familial Risk for Hypertension.

BACKGROUND: This study investigated (i) whether compassion is associated with blood pressure or hypertension in adulthood and (ii) whether familial risk for hypertension modifies these associations. METHOD: The participants (N = 1112-1293) came from the prospective Young Finns Study. Parental hypertension was assessed in 1983-2007; participants' blood pressure in 2001, 2007, and 2011; hypertension in 2007 and 2011 (participants were aged 30-49 years in 2007-2011); and compassion in 2001. RESULTS: High compassion predicted lower levels of diastolic and systolic blood pressure in adulthood. Additionally, high compassion was related to lower risk for hypertension in adulthood among individuals with no familial risk for hypertension (independently of age, sex, participants' and their parents' socioeconomic factors, and participants' health behaviors). Compassion was not related to hypertension in adulthood among individuals with familial risk for hypertension. CONCLUSION: High compassion predicts lower diastolic and systolic blood pressure in adulthood. Moreover, high compassion may protect against hypertension among individuals without familial risk for hypertension. As our sample consisted of comparatively young participants, our findings provide novel implications for especially early-onset hypertension.

Dimensions of social support in the experience of work engagement in middle age: A Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 Study.

So far, the relationship between the various dimensions of social support and work engagement has not been widely examined in the literature. In this study, we examined the relationship of social support at work (from a colleague or supervisor) and social support in one's private life (from a spouse, relative or friend) with various dimensions of work engagement (vigor, dedication and absorption). The participants (N = 5,259-5,376, 46 years-old, 52.7% women) came from the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 study. Social support was evaluated with the Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ), and work engagement was assessed with a short version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9). The data were analyzed using linear regression analyses. The results showed that high social support at work (p < 0.001) and in one's private life (p < 0.001) were associated with higher total work engagement, higher vigor, higher dedication, and higher absorption. These findings were adjusted for gender, marital status, education and occupational status. The results were essentially unchanged when they were additionally adjusted for job strain and effort-reward imbalance. To conclude, our findings indicate that the experience of overall social support may play a role in the experience of work engagement.

Breastfeeding and offspring's compassion and empathy in adulthood: A study with an over 30-year follow-up.

This study investigated whether breastfeeding predicts offspring's dispositional compassion and empathy from early adulthood to middle age. The parents of the participants (N = 1,394) of the Young Finns study answered questions about breastfeeding in 1983, and the participants' compassion and empathy were evaluated in 1997-2012 (participants were aged 20-50 years). Breastfeeding did not predict the course of compassion or empathy in adulthood at the age of 20-50 years. The associations remained non-significant, when adjusted for age, gender, socioeconomic factors, and a wide range of characteristics of the family environment (including mother's gestational age; premature birth; birth weight; number of other children at home; parental mental disorder; parental relationship status; parental postnatal smoking; parental postnatal alcohol use; parenting behavior; and child's externalizing behavior). In conclusion, breastfeeding seems not to predict offspring's compassion or empathy in adulthood. The findings may present a hopeful perspective for children growing up with non-breastfeeding caregivers.

The role of oxytocinergic genes in the intergenerational transmission of parent-child relationship qualities.

Parenting qualities are known to transmit across generations, but less is known about genetic processes that may modify how strongly parenting quality carries across generations. We examined in prospective data whether oxytocinergic genes of offspring moderate the intergenerational transmission of warm and accepting parent-child relationship qualities. The sample comprised 1167 Finnish parents (G2, 62% female) and their mothers (G1). At the study baseline, G1 mothers (Mage = 38) reported parent-child relationship qualities towards G2 children (age range 3-18). After 28-34 years, G2 offspring reported parent-child relationship qualities towards their own children using the same questionnaire. A cumulative genetic score was computed for G2 by summing up previously identified four alleles associated with non-optimal parenting or social impairments across OXTR (rs1042778, rs2254298, rs53576) and CD38 (rs3796863) genes. Results indicated no interaction effects of G2 cumulative genetic score on the transmission of parent-child relationship qualities. Among single polymorphisms in OXTR, the interaction effects of rs53576 and rs1042778 were found. G1 maternal emotional warmth was associated with higher G2 emotional warmth among G2 participants with the OXTR rs53576 AA/AG genotype, but not among those with the GG genotype. G1 maternal acceptance was associated with higher G2 acceptance among those G2 participants with the OXTR rs1042778 GG/GT genotype, but not among those with the TT genotype. Oxytocinergic genes may influence sensitivity to quality of parent-child relationship, although this needs replication in future studies.

Gene-environment correlations in parental emotional warmth and intolerance: genome-wide analysis over two generations of the Young Finns Study.

BACKGROUND: Genomic analysis of the child might offer new potential to illuminate human parenting. We examined whether offspring (G2) genome-wide genotype variation (SNPs) is associated with their mother's (G1) emotional warmth and intolerance, indicating a gene-environment correlation. If this association is stronger than between G2's genes and their emotional warmth and intolerance toward their own children, then this would indicate the presence of an evocative gene-environment correlation. To further understand how G1 mother's parenting has been evoked by genetically influenced characteristics of the child (G2), we examined whether child (G2) temperament partially accounted for the association between offspring genes and parental responses. METHODS: Participants were from the Young Finns Study. G1 mothers (N = 2,349; mean age 39 years) self-reported the emotional warmth and intolerance toward G2 in 1980 when the participants were from 3 to 18 years old. G2 participants answered the same parenting scales in 2007/2012 (N = 1,378; mean age = 38 years in 2007; 59% female) when their children were on average 11 years old. Offspring temperament traits were self-reported in 1992 (G2 age range 15-30 years). Estimation of the phenotypic variance explained by the SNPs of G2 was done by genome-wide complex trait analysis with restricted maximum likelihood (GCTA-GREML). RESULTS: Results showed that the SNPs of a child (G2) explained 22.6% of the phenotypic variance of maternal intolerance (G1; p-value = .039). G2 temperament trait negative emotionality explained only 2.4% points of this association. G2 genes did not explain G1 emotional warmth or G2's own emotional warmth and intolerance. However, further analyses of a combined measure of both G1 parenting scales found genetic effects. Parent or child gender did not moderate the observed associations. CONCLUSIONS: Presented genome-wide evidence is pointing to the important role a child plays in affecting and shaping his/her family environment, though the underlying mechanisms remain unclear.

Is It Good To Be Good? Dispositional Compassion and Health Behaviors.

BACKGROUND: Despite the documented importance of dispositional compassions for a range of health-related outcomes, its role in predicting health behaviors remains unclear. PURPOSE: This study examined the associations between dispositional compassion and three domains of health behavior, including physical activity, alcohol use, and smoking. METHODS: The participants (N = 1,279-1,913) were from the Finnish population-based Young Finns study. We collected self-reports of compassion in 1997 and 2011 and health behaviors in 2001, 2007, and 2011. In addition, an objective pedometer measure of physical activity was collected in 2011. Linear and logistic regression models were fitted to estimate the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between compassion and the health behavior outcomes. RESULTS: In a cross-sectional analysis, compassion was associated with having never smoked and a reduced likelihood of at-risk alcohol use and binge drinking. There was no robust association between compassion and physical activity. In longitudinal analyses over a 14-year period, the associations remained for at-risk alcohol use and binge drinking. CONCLUSIONS: Dispositional compassion may have a protective effect against unhealthy behaviors, especially excessive alcohol consumption.

Personality traits and perceptions of organisational justice.

This study examined the association between five-factor model personality traits and perceptions of organisational justice. The sample for the study comprised 903 participants (35-50 years old; 523 women) studied in 2007 and 2012. Measures used were the Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Five-Factor Inventory questionnaire and the short organisational justice measure. The results showed that high neuroticism was associated with low distributive, procedural and interactional justice. Furthermore, high agreeableness was associated with high procedural and interactional justice and high openness with high distributive justice. This study suggests that neuroticism, agreeableness and openness are involved in perceptions of organisational justice and that personality should be considered in research and in practices at the workplace.

Accumulation of Depressive Symptoms and Carotid Intima-Media Thickness: the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study.

BACKGROUND: The association between depressive symptoms and subclinical atherosclerosis has been inconsistent. PURPOSE: We sought to replicate our previous study, which demonstrated a positive relation between depressive symptoms and subclinical atherosclerosis assessed with carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) in men, using a newer measurement of carotid IMT and a cumulative loading of depressive symptoms over three follow-ups. METHODS: The sample comprised 996 adults (352 men) aged 30 to 45 years in 2007 from a prospective population-based Finnish sample. The participants completed a modified version of Beck Depression Inventory in 1992, 1997, and 2001. Carotid IMT was assessed with ultrasound in 2001 and 2007. Cardiovascular risk factors (i.e., body mass index, systolic blood pressure, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and smoking) were measured in childhood (1980) and in adulthood (2007). RESULTS: We found no association between the accumulative depression index and carotid IMT before or after controlling for the traditional risk factors (all p values ≥0.67). Depressive symptoms did not predict IMT progression over two time points and the highest level of carotid wall thickening. Imputed and non-imputed data sets provided similar results. Results remained the same when men and women were analyzed separately. Additional analyses revealed no significant interactions between depressive symptoms and cardiovascular risk factors (i.e., body mass index and systolic blood pressure) on carotid IMT (all p values >0.15). CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this population-based study did not indicate any direct association between depressive symptoms and carotid IMT in asymptomatic, young adults.

Does Childhood Temperamental Activity Predict Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior over a 30-Year Period? Evidence from the Young Finns Study.

PURPOSE: We examined associations between childhood temperamental activity, physical activity (PA), and television (TV) viewing over a 30-year period. METHOD: The participants (1220 boys and 1237 girls) were aged 3, 6, 9, and 12 years in 1980 and were followed until 2011. Temperamental activity was evaluated by participants' mothers at baseline. The PA was assessed based on maternal ratings of the child from ages 3 to 6 and via self-report age from the age of 9 across all measurements. TV viewing was assessed using self-reports taken from 2001 to 2011. The associations between temperamental activity and the level and change of PA and TV viewing were determined using linear growth modeling stratified by gender and age group. RESULTS: High temperamental activity assessed from ages 9 to 12 was associated with high levels of childhood PA in both genders, but with a steeper decline in PA levels during the first 9 years of follow-up in boys. High temperamental activity assessed from ages 3 to 6 was associated with the decline of PA from childhood to youth in girls. High childhood temperamental activity was associated with decreased levels of PA in adulthood in men, but not in women. The associations between childhood temperamental activity and TV viewing during adulthood seemed to be positive but not consistently significant in all age and gender groups. CONCLUSION: High temperamental activity may contribute to the development of a physically inactive lifestyle. More evidence is needed with regard to gender differences among participants in similar study settings.

Is Symptomatic Long QT Syndrome Associated with Depression in Women and Men?

We examined whether long QT syndrome (LQTS) mutation carrier status or symptomatic LQTS are associated with depression, and whether there are sex differences in these potential relationships. The sample comprised 782 participants (252 men). Of the 369 genetically defined LQTS mutation carriers, 169 were symptomatic and 200 were asymptomatic. The control group consisted of 413 unaffected relatives. Depression was assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). No association was found for LQTS mutation carrier status with depression. The multinomial logistic regression showed that LQTS mutation carrier men with arrhythmic events scored higher on depression compared with the control group, even when adjusting for age, ß-blockers, antidepressants, and social support (OR = 1.09, 95 % CI [1.02, 1.15], p = .007). The binary logistic regression comparing symptomatic and asymptomatic LQTS mutation carriers showed that symptomatic LQTS was associated with depression in men (OR = 1.10, 95 % CI [1.03, 1.19], p = .009). The results were unchanged when additionally adjusted for education. These findings suggest that symptomatic LQTS is associated with depression in men but not in women. Overall, however, depression is more frequent in women than men. Thus, regular screening for depression in LQTS mutation carriers and their unaffected family members can be important.