Sleep patterns among preschool offspring of parents with and without psychopathology: Association with the development of psychopathology in childhood.

BACKGROUND: Disturbed sleep during early childhood predicts social-emotional problems. However, it is not known how various early childhood sleep phenotypes are associated with the development of childhood psychopathology, nor whether these relationships vary as a function of parental psychopathology. We identified sleep phenotypes among preschool youth; examined whether these phenotypes were associated with child and parent factors; and determined if early sleep phenotypes predicted later childhood psychopathology. METHODS: Using data from the Pittsburgh Bipolar Offspring study, parents with bipolar disorder (BD), non-BD psychopathology, and healthy controls reported about themselves and their offspring (n = 218) when their children were ages 2-5. Offspring and parents were interviewed directly approximately every 2 years from ages 6-18. Latent class analysis (LCA) identified latent sleep classes; we compared these classes on offspring demographics, parental sleep variables, and parental diagnoses. Kaplan-Meier survival models estimated hazard of developing any new-onset Axis-I disorders, as well as BD specifically, for each class. RESULTS: The optimal LCA solution featured four sleep classes, which we characterized as (1) good sleep, (2) wake after sleep onset problems, (3) bedtime problems (e.g., trouble falling asleep, resists going to bed), and (4) poor sleep generally. Good sleepers tended to have significantly less parental psychopathology than the other three classes. Risk of developing new-onset Axis-I disorders was highest among the poor sleep class and lowest among the good sleep class. CONCLUSIONS: Preschool sleep phenotypes are an important predictor of the development of psychopathology. Future work is needed to understand the biopsychosocial processes underlying these trajectories.

Greater Frontoparietal Connectivity During Task Engagement Among Toddlers With Parent-Reported Inattention.

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder with lifelong impairments. ADHD-related behaviors have been observed as early as toddlerhood for children who later develop ADHD. Children with ADHD have disrupted connectivity in neural circuitry involved in executive control of attention, including the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and dorsal attention network (DAN). It is not known if these alterations in connectivity can be identified before the onset of ADHD. Children (N = 51) 1.5-3 years old were assessed using functional near-infrared spectroscopy while engaging with a book. The relation between mother-reported ADHD-related behaviors and neural connectivity, computed using robust innovation-based correlation, was examined. Task engagement was high across the sample and unrelated to ADHD-related behaviors. Observed attention was associated with greater connectivity between the right lateral PFC and the right temporal parietal junction (TPJ). Children with greater ADHD-related behaviors had greater frontoparietal connectivity, particularly between the PFC bilaterally and the right TPJ. Toddlers at risk for developing ADHD may require increased frontoparietal connectivity to sustain attention. Future work is needed to examine early interventions that enhance developing attention and their effect on neural connectivity between the PFC and attention networks.

Research Review: A systematic review and meta-analysis of infant and toddler temperament as predictors of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

BACKGROUND: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder with onset as early as preschool and impairment across the lifespan. Temperament factors, specifically those that theoretically map onto ADHD symptoms, may be early markers of risk for developing later childhood ADHD that could be identifiable in infancy or toddlerhood. This meta-analysis examined the associations between these early temperamental factors and later symptoms and diagnosis of ADHD and mapped early temperament constructs onto the three ADHD symptom dimensions. METHODS: A systemic review of the literature was conducted to identify prospective longitudinal studies that included theoretically relevant temperament constructs (sustained attention, activity level, inhibition, and negative emotionality) examined from birth to 36 months old and ADHD (symptoms or diagnosis) in preschool or childhood. The association between each temperament construct and ADHD outcomes was examined using pooled standardized estimates in meta-analyses. RESULTS: Forty-eight articles (n = 112,716 infants/toddlers) prospectively examined temperament and the relation to childhood ADHD symptoms or diagnosis. Activity level (k = 18) in infancy and toddlerhood was moderately associated with childhood ADHD (r = .39, CI = 0.27, 0.51, p < .001). Moderate effect sizes were also observed for sustained attention (k = 9; r = -.28, CI = -0.42, -0.12, p < .001) and negative emotionality (k = 33; r = .25, CI = 0.16, 0.34, p < .001) with ADHD. The specificity of each temperament construct for later ADHD symptom dimensions was such that activity level and negative emotionality were predictive of all three symptom dimensions (i.e., inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity, and combined), whereas sustained attention was only associated with combined symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Infant and toddler temperament is an early risk factor for the development of childhood ADHD that could be utilized for early intervention identification. Yet, this systematic review found that relatively few prospective longitudinal studies have examined sustained attention (k = 9) and inhibition (k = 15) in infancy and toddlerhood in relation to later ADHD highlighting the need for further research.

Early indicators of bipolar risk in preschool offspring of parents with bipolar disorder.

BACKGROUND: Offspring of parents with bipolar disorder (BD-I/II) are at increased risk to develop the disorder. Previous work indicates that bipolar spectrum disorder (BPSD) is often preceded by mood/anxiety symptoms. In school-age offspring of parents with BD, we previously built a risk calculator to predict BPSD onset, which generates person-level risk scores. Here, we test whether preschool symptoms predict school-age BPSD risk. METHODS: We assessed 113 offspring of parents with BD 1-3 times during preschool years (2-5 years old) and then approximately every 2 years for a mean of 10.6 years. We used penalized (lasso) regression with linear mixed models to assess relationships between preschool mood, anxiety, and behavioral symptoms (parent-reported) and school-age predictors of BPSD onset (i.e., risk score, subthreshold manic symptoms, and mood lability), adjusting for demographics and parental symptomatology. Finally, we conducted survival analyses to assess associations between preschool symptoms and school-age onset of BPSD and mood disorder. RESULTS: Of 113 preschool offspring, 33 developed new-onset mood disorder, including 19 with new-onset BPSD. Preschool irritability, sleep problems, and parental factors were lasso-selected predictors of school-age risk scores. After accounting for demographic and parental factors, preschool symptoms were no longer significant. Lasso regressions to predict mood lability and subthreshold manic symptoms yielded similar predictors (irritability, sleep problems, and parental affective lability), but preschool symptoms remained predictive even after adjusting for parental factors (ps < .005). Exploratory analyses indicated that preschool irritability univariately predicted new-onset BPSD (p = .02) and mood disorder (p = .02). CONCLUSIONS: These results provide initial prospective evidence that, as early as preschool, youth who will develop elevated risk scores, mood lability, and subthreshold manic symptoms are already showing symptomatology; these preschool symptoms also predict new-onset BPSD. While replication of findings in larger samples is warranted, results point to the need for earlier assessment of risk and development of early interventions.

Effects of Training on Use of Stimulant Diversion Prevention Strategies by Pediatric Primary Care Providers: Results from a Cluster-Randomized Trial.

Pediatric primary care is a promising setting for reducing diversion of stimulant medications for ADHD. We tested if training pediatric primary care providers (PCPs) increased use of diversion prevention strategies with adolescents with ADHD. The study was a cluster-randomized trial in 7 pediatric primary care practices. Participants were pediatric PCPs (N = 76) at participating practices. Practices were randomized to a 1-h training in stimulant diversion prevention or treatment-as-usual. At baseline, 6 months, 12 months, and 18 months, PCPs rated how often they used four categories of strategies: patient/family education, medication management/monitoring, assessment of mental health symptoms/functioning, and assessment of risky behaviors. They completed measures of attitudes, implementation climate, knowledge/skill, and resource constraints. Generalized Estimating Equations estimated differences in outcomes by condition. Mediation analyses tested if changes in knowledge/skill mediated training effects on strategy use. PCPs in the intervention condition reported significantly greater use of patient/family education strategies at all follow-up time points. There were no differences between conditions in medication management, assessment of mental health symptoms/functioning, or assessment of risky behaviors. At 6 months, PCPs in the intervention condition reported more positive attitudes toward diversion prevention, stronger implementation climate, greater knowledge/skill, and less resource constraints. Differences in knowledge/skill persisted at 12 months and 18 months. Brief training in stimulant diversion had substantial and enduring effects on PCPs' self-reported knowledge/skill and use of patient/family education strategies to prevent diversion. Training had modest effects on attitudes, implementation climate, and resource constraints and did not change use of strategies related to medication management and assessment of mental health symptoms/functioning and risky behaviors. Changes in knowledge/skill accounted for 49% of the total effect of training on use of patient/family education strategies. Trial registration This trial is registered on ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03080259). Posted March 15, 2017.

Role of ADHD in the Co-Occurrence Between Heavy Alcohol Use and Depression Trajectories in Adulthood.

BACKGROUND: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with greater heavy alcohol use and depressive symptoms in adulthood. Yet, few studies have investigated whether childhood ADHD predicts an increased association between heavy drinking and depression in adulthood when this co-occurrence becomes more common. We examined associations among heavy alcohol use and depression longitudinally from ages 21 to 29 and whether these associations differed for those with or without childhood ADHD, as well as for those with or without persistent ADHD in adulthood. METHODS: Data were from the Pittsburgh ADHD Longitudinal Study, a prospective cohort of children diagnosed with ADHD and demographically similar individuals without ADHD histories. ADHD symptoms in adulthood were self- and parent reported; depressive symptoms and frequency of drinking 5 or more drinks in a single drinking occasion were self-reported and measured at 5 time-points from ages 21 to 29. Depression and alcohol use were modeled in a multiple-group, parallel process longitudinal growth model. RESULTS: The slopes of heavy alcohol use and depression were significantly and positively associated from ages 25 to 29 but not at the younger ages. Although the strength of these associations did not differ by group (with or without ADHD, childhood or adulthood), the slopes of depression and heavy drinking at the older ages were highly variable and individuals with ADHD showed significantly faster growth in depression from ages 25 to 29. CONCLUSIONS: Due to the strengthening association between heavy drinking and depression for adults in their late 20s, and increasing depression for adults with ADHD histories, individuals with ADHD may be at greater risk for co-occurring depression and binge drinking. Negative reinforcement-related alcohol use may strengthen as these individuals age toward the fourth decade of life. More rigorous testing of this possibility is warranted.

Fathers with Childhood ADHD, Parenting, and Their Young Children's Behavior: Offspring of the Pittsburgh ADHD Longitudinal Study (PALS).

Despite high heritability, no research has followed children with ADHD to parenthood to study their offspring and parenting behaviors. Given greater prevalence of ADHD in males and lack of research involving fathers, this study evaluated offspring of fathers with and without ADHD histories for ADHD and disruptive behavior and compared fathers' parenting behaviors. Male fathers (N = 29) from the Pittsburgh ADHD Longitudinal Study (PALS) participated with their preschool-aged offspring. Fathers completed self-reported measures, and father-child dyads completed an interaction task. ADHD offspring had elevated ADHD symptoms and behavior dysregulation. All fathers displayed positive parenting. ADHD fathers reported lower supportive responses to their child's negative emotions than comparison fathers, yet rated their parenting as more efficacious. ADHD offspring were distinguishable as early as age 3; thus, earlier diagnosis and intervention may be feasible for this at-risk population. Future research should investigate the acceptability and efficacy of parent training for fathers with ADHD.

Evaluation of Project RISE, an HIV Prevention Intervention for Black Bisexual Men Using an Ecosystems Approach.

Black men who have sex with men and women (MSMW) are among the populations at highest risk for HIV infection. We describe the evaluation of Project RISE, a six-session individual-level intervention developed for black MSMW using an ecosystems approach. A randomized controlled trial was used to test the effect of the intervention on sexual risk outcomes. Eligibility criteria included having both male and female sex partners in the past 12 months. Complete data at 5-month follow-up were collected from 86.7% of the 165 participants. In analyses controlling for HIV status, age, and baseline risk, intervention participants were found to have significantly greater reductions in number of female partners (p < 0.05) and total male and female partners (p < 0.05) at follow-up, compared to the control group. Intervention participants also were significantly more likely to report a reduction in number of sex episodes without a condom with female partners (p < 0.05) and with all partners (p < 0.02) at follow-up, compared to the control group.

Efficacy of a Small-Group Intervention for Post-Incarcerated Black Men Who Have Sex with Men and Women (MSMW).

We conducted a randomized controlled trial of a six-session behavioral intervention designed to reduce frequency of condomless sex and numbers of sex partners among recently incarcerated, bisexual Black men. One hundred participants were assigned to the small-group intervention, Men in Life Environments (MILE), and 112 were assigned to the control condition. Among those assigned to MILE, 69% attended at least one session, 88% of whom attended all sessions. At 3-months' follow-up, large reductions in risk behaviors were reported by both groups. Means for episodes of condomless sex in the previous 3 months declined from 27.7 to 8.0 for the intervention and 25.6 to 6.7 for the control group. Reductions were not greater for the intervention than those of the control group. Regression to the mean, respondent burden, and implementation issues, such as moving from office-based to field-based survey administration at follow-up, may have contributed to the large declines reported by both groups.

HIV Acquisition and Transmission Potential Among African American Men Who Have Sex with Men and Women in Three U.S. Cities.

Black men who have sex with men and women (BMSMW) are at increased HIV risk, but few efficacious interventions meet their unique needs. Three HIV prevention interventions were evaluated with a common protocol. Baseline data were pooled to describe sexual behavior involving transmission risk with male, female, and male-to-female transgender partners and identify factors associated with transmission risk. BMSMW from Los Angeles, Philadelphia, and Chicago who reported sexual risk and bisexual behavior in the past year were recruited via modified chain referral sampling and community recruitment. Baseline assessments were conducted via audio computer-assisted interview and sexual behaviors assessed over the past 3 months. From December 2010 to November 2012, 584 BMSMW were enrolled across the three cities. More than half (55%) were recruited by other participants. Overall, the mean age was 43 years. Seventy-five percent reported an annual income <$10,000 and selling sex was prevalent (31%). Three-quarters identified as bisexual. Thirty-nine percent were HIV-positive. Among HIV-positive participants, 46% reported sex without condoms with HIV-negative or unknown male partners and 45% with HIV-negative or unknown female partners. Overall, factors associated with sex without condoms included network size, education, income, sexual orientation identification, HIV status, exchange sex, homonegativity, and social support. Findings support the need for enhanced HIV prevention efforts for this population. Future studies should examine contextual factors in addition to individual risk behaviors to inform the development and implementation of promising strategies to prevent HIV and promote the overall health and wellness of BMSMW and their sexual partners.

Development of a women's mental health curriculum and evolution to a Women's Mental Health Area of Concentration in a psychiatry residency program.

In 2014, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services' Office on Women's Health emphasized the importance of women's health education, particularly in the realm of behavioral health. In order to support the professional interests of psychiatry trainees, a women's mental health study group (WMHSG) was developed and implemented. The WMHSG aimed primarily to supplement the resident curriculum and promote consideration of careers in women's mental health. After successful implementation, the curriculum was formalized into a Women's Mental Health Area of Concentration within the Department of Psychiatry's residency training program. Participants found the WMHSG to be interesting, to increase knowledge and improve clinical practice, and to facilitate mentorship opportunities. The creation and evolution of a WMHSG into an Area of Concentration offers an example for enhancing training in WMH topics and principles that can be extended to other medical specialties.

Structural Interventions in HIV Prevention: A Taxonomy and Descriptive Systematic Review.

One of the four national HIV prevention goals is to incorporate combinations of effective, evidence-based approaches to prevent HIV infection. In fields of public health, techniques that alter environment and affect choice options are effective. Structural approaches may be effective in preventing HIV infection. Existing frameworks for structural interventions were lacking in breadth and/or depth. We conducted a systematic review and searched CDC's HIV/AIDS Prevention Research Synthesis Project's database for relevant interventions during 1988-2013. We used an iterative process to develop the taxonomy. We identified 213 structural interventions: Access (65%), Policy/Procedure (32%), Mass Media (29%), Physical Structure (27%), Capacity Building (24%), Community Mobilization (9%), and Social Determinants of Health (8%). Forty percent targeted high-risk populations (e.g., people who inject drugs [12%]). This paper describes a comprehensive, well-defined taxonomy of structural interventions with 7 categories and 20 subcategories. The taxonomy accommodated all interventions identified.

The Influence of Smoking on Breast feeding Among Women Who Quit Smoking During Pregnancy.

INTRODUCTION: Understanding factors related to breast-feeding intention, initiation, duration, and weaning among women who quit smoking as a result of pregnancy may inform interventions to increase breast-feeding rates among women who smoke. METHODS: Women (N = 300) who quit smoking as a result of pregnancy and enrolled in a postpartum relapse prevention trial were interviewed about breast-feeding intention prior to delivery. Breast-feeding initiation, duration, reasons for weaning, and relapse to smoking were assessed at 12-weeks postpartum. RESULTS: The majority of pregnant former smokers intended to breastfeed (68%), and actual rates of breast feeding were higher (74%). Among women who initiated breast feeding, weaning before 2 months was common (41%). For most women (69%), smoking had no effect on breast-feeding decisions. Among the 31% of women who reported that smoking influenced their feeding decisions, 83% indicated that they did not smoke or decreased smoking frequency in order to breastfeed while 17% did not breastfeed or quit breast feeding in order to smoke. Women who decided to forgo breast feeding to smoke were significantly more likely to have a high school education or less (p < .001) and to be African American (p < .0001) than those who had other reasons not to breastfeed. CONCLUSIONS: Most women who quit smoking during pregnancy initiate breast feeding, and the majority report smoking did not influence feeding decisions. Importantly, among women for whom smoking did influence feeding decisions, most reported changing smoking behavior to enable breast feeding. Interventions to increase breast-feeding initiation and duration may decrease postpartum relapse and improve maternal and infant health. IMPLICATIONS: This study extends the literature on women's perception of the influence of smoking on breast feeding by assessing breast-feeding intent, initiation, duration, and reasons for weaning longitudinally among women who quit smoking as a result of pregnancy. The results support a need for additional research to determine the effectiveness of breast feeding supports as a component of interventions to reduce postpartum smoking relapse.

A Randomized Controlled Trial of POWER: An Internet-Based HIV Prevention Intervention for Black Bisexual Men.

POWER is a theory-based, on-line HIV prevention intervention developed specifically for Black men who have sex with men and women (BMSMW), an understudied group significantly impacted by HIV. To test its efficacy, we recruited 224 BMSMW using chain referral methods and randomly assigned 108 to POWER and 103 to a health information comparison condition. Three months after the intervention, participants assigned to POWER had lower odds of reporting any condomless vaginal or condomless anal intercourse (CVAI) compared to those in the comparison group (aOR = 0.49; 95 % CI 0.25-0.98; p = 0.044). The intervention was associated with significantly lower odds of condomless anal intercourse with male partners (aOR = 0.55; 95 % CI 0.34-0.91; p = 0.020) but not with female partners and serodiscordant sex with male partners but not with female partners. Future studies are needed to replicate these findings in larger and more diverse samples of BMSMW and to understand the underlying mechanisms through which intervention efficacy was achieved.

Anal intercourse without condoms among HIV-positive men who have sex with men recruited from a sexual networking web site, United States.

BACKGROUND: The changing landscape of HIV prevention in the United States underscores the need to improve our ability to efficiently reach HIV-positive men who have sex with men (MSM) who engage in behaviors that could transmit HIV. METHODS: We examined the prevalence of anal intercourse (AI) without condoms with HIV-negative or unknown serostatus partners ("at-risk partners") among 1319 HIV-positive adult male members of a sexual networking Web site for MSM. Sexual behaviors and substance use were measured over a 60-day recall period. Logistic regression was used to identify correlates of insertive and receptive AI without condoms with at-risk partners. RESULTS: Approximately 25% of the men had been diagnosed as having HIV 12 months or less before study enrollment. Overall, 32% of men engaged in AI without condoms with at-risk partners. Multiple logistic regression identified behavioral predictors of insertive AI without condoms with at-risk partners, including HIV diagnosis within the last 12 months, sex with multiple male partners, substance use in conjunction with sex, and use of phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors. Receptive AI without condoms with at-risk partners was associated with younger age (19-24 years), residing outside metropolitan cities, substance use in conjunction with sex, and having multiple male partners. CONCLUSIONS: High levels of sexual risk were found among these MSM. Increased Internet-based HIV prevention marketing efforts and prevention strategies should be considered to efficiently reach HIV-positive MSM who engage in serodiscordant AI without condoms.

Adapting the VOICES HIV behavioral intervention for Latino men who have sex with men.

Latino men who have sex with men (MSM) are disproportionately impacted by HIV/AIDS, but few behavioral interventions address their prevention needs. Adaptation of evidence-based interventions is a pragmatic strategy that builds upon lessons learned and has the potential to fill gaps in prevention programming. Yet there are few reports of how transfers are executed and whether effectiveness is achieved. This research reports on the adaptation of VOICES/VOICES, a single-session intervention designed for heterosexual adults, into No Excuses/Sin buscar excuses for Latino MSM. To test the adapted intervention, 370 at-risk Latino MSM were enrolled in a randomized trial. At a three-month follow-up, there was a sharper decrease in unprotected intercourse in the intervention group compared to controls (59 % vs. 39 %, ANOVA p < 0.05, F = 4.10). Intervention participants also reported more condom use at last intercourse (AOR = 1.69; 95 % CI 1.02-2.81, p < 02). Findings support use of adapted models for meeting prevention needs of high-priority populations.

HIV testing among sexually active Hispanic/Latino MSM in Miami-Dade County and New York City: opportunities for increasing acceptance and frequency of testing.

HIV testing behavior is important in understanding the high rates of undiagnosed infection among Hispanic/Latino men who have sex with men (MSM). Correlates of repeat/recent testing (within the past year and ≥5 tests during lifetime) and test avoidance (never or >5 years earlier) were examined among 608 sexually active Hispanic/Latino MSM (Miami-Dade County and New York City). Those who reported repeat/recent testing were more likely to have incomes over $30,000, speak English predominately, and have visited and disclosed same-sex behavior to a health care provider (HCP) in the past year. Those who were classified as test avoiders were less likely to have incomes over $10,000 and to have seen an HCP in the past year. The main reason for not testing (in both groups) was fear of HIV positivity; however, twice as many test avoiders considered this their main reason, and more test avoiders had confidentiality concerns. Results suggest that messages to encourage testing among Hispanic/Latino MSM may be most effective if past testing patterns and reasons for not testing are considered. HCPs can play an important role by consistently offering HIV tests to MSM and tailoring messages based on prior testing histories.

Changing the paradigm for primary research dissemination.

The predominant research publishing system is not equitable by design, nor optimised to advance research to create knowledge and ultimately to benefit society. Open Research Central (ORC) was created to foster the re-imagination of the research dissemination system to facilitate trust, transparency and equitable participation. In five years of operation, before dissolving, the non-profit organisation produced outputs and learnings valuable to the development of a responsible research dissemination system. We are sharing our experience in the hope that it will provide others who share the same vision and goals with useful materials to build on. We think that there remains a need for global, cross-stakeholder exploration to build collective understanding of research validation and dissemination and to pilot solutions. However, as this article will explore, enabling and supporting the development of such a collective voice and consequent action is a challenging endeavour in the current landscape and funding environment.

Altered Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Functioning During Emotional Interference Resistance Is Associated With Affect Lability in Adults With Persisting Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder From Childhood.

BACKGROUND: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention and/or impulsivity/hyperactivity. ADHD, especially when persisting into adulthood, often includes emotional dysregulation, such as affect lability; however, the neural correlates of emotionality in adults with heterogeneous ADHD symptom persistence remain unclear. METHODS: The present study sought to determine shared and distinct functional neuroanatomical profiles of neural circuitry during emotional interference resistance using the emotional face n-back task in adult participants with persisting (n = 47), desisting (n = 93), or no (n = 42) childhood ADHD symptoms while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging. RESULTS: Participants without any lifetime ADHD diagnosis performed significantly better (faster and more accurately) than participants with ADHD diagnoses on trials with high cognitive loads (2-back) that included task-irrelevant emotional distractors, tapping into executive functioning and emotion regulatory processes. In participants with persisting ADHD symptoms, more severe emotional symptoms were related to worse task performance. Heightened dorsolateral and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex activation was associated with more accurate and faster performance on 2-back emotional faces trials, respectively. Reduced activation was associated with greater affect lability in adults with persisting ADHD, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation mediated the relationship between affect lability and task accuracy. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that alterations in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex function associated with greater interference in cognitive processes from emotion could represent a marker of risk for problems with emotional dysregulation in individuals with persisting ADHD and thus represent a potential therapeutic target for those with greater emotional symptoms of ADHD.

Highly Involved Parenting of Adolescents With ADHD: Examination of the Psychometric Properties of a Measure of "Helicopter Parenting".

OBJECTIVE: The concept of the "helicopter parent" was popularized in the 2000s and 2010s by Western culture, and it has recently begun to be examined by researchers to describe parental over-involvement and intrusive behavior that impedes transition into adulthood. Research has yet to investigate the viability of this construct for adolescents when parenting is needed to facilitate the development of autonomy. The present study examined the psychometric structure of a modified "helicopter parenting" measure adapted for use in a sample with increased likelihood of highly involved parenting: adolescents with ADHD. METHODS: Adolescents (n = 333; age 13-18 years; 25% female) and their parents (n = 341, 91% female) completed a survey for a study on provider training in stimulant diversion prevention in 2016 and 2017. We modified a previously validated measure of "helicopter parenting" for young adults. Other previously established parenting measures were included. We conducted principal component analysis for both informants' reports of the modified measure. We examined associations between the components and informants' demographic characteristics and parenting measures to begin to examine convergent and discriminant validity. RESULTS: Two components were identified for adolescent and parent reports and labeled parental Intervention and Day-to-day Monitoring and Planning. These components were differentially associated with demographic characteristics and other measures of parenting. For example, across reporters, parents exhibited less Day-to-Day Monitoring and Planning for older adolescents. Racially/ethnically minoritized parents and male adolescents reported more Intervention parenting. Modest-sized statistically significant associations were found between these indicators of highly involved parenting and the other measures of parenting. CONCLUSION: Findings provide initial evidence of construct validity. Future work with more heterogeneous samples should examine if this measure captures adaptive parenting, or behaviors that interfere with developing independence, for adolescents with ADHD and neurotypically developing adolescents.